sures were approved by Charles IV., who then || Spirituals and the followers of Pierre d'Olive resided at Lucca, whence, in 1369, he issued whose scattered remains were yet observable several edicts, commanding all the German in several places, joined themselves gradually princes to extirpate out of their dominions the and imperceptibly to this party. And, as the Beghards and Beguines, or, as he himself inter- number of those who were fond of the severe preted the names, the voluntary beggars, as discipline continually increased in many proenemies of the church, and of the Roman em- vinces, the popes thought proper to approve pire, and to assist the inquisitors in their pro- that institute, and to give it the solemn sancceedings against them. By another edict, pub- tion of their authority. In consequence of this, lished not long after, he gave the houses of the Franciscan order was divided into two the Beghards to the tribunal of the inquisition, large bodies, namely, the Conventual Brethordering them to be converted into prisons for ren, and the Brethren of the regular observance. heretics; and, at the same time, ordered all the Those who neglected the strict sense of the effects of the Beguines to be publicly sold, and expressions in which the institute of their the profits thence arising, to be equally divided founder was conceived, and adopted the modiamong the inquisitors, the magistrates, and the fications given of them by the pontiffs, were poor of those towns and cities where such sale called by the former name; and the council of should take place.† The Beghards, being reConstance conferred the latter upon those who duced to great distress, by this and other man- chose to be determined by the words of the dates of the emperor, and by the constitutions institute itself, rather than by any explications of the popes, sought a refuge in those provinces of it. But the Fratricelli and the Beghards of Switzerland that border upon the Rhine, absolutely rejected this reconciliation, and perand also in Holland, Brabant, and various sisted in disturbing the peace of the church parts of Germany. But the edicts and man- during this and the following century, in the dates of the emperor, together with the papal || marquisate of Ancona, and in other districts. bulls and inquisitors, harassed them in their most distant retreats; and, during the reign of Charles IV., all Germany (except the provinces bordering upon Switzerland) was thoroughly purged of the Beghards, or rebellious Franciscans, both perfect and imperfect. XXXIV. But no edicts, bulls, or inquisitors,|| could entirely pluck up the roots of this inveterate discord; for so ardently were many of the brethren bent upon observing, in the most perfect and rigorous manner, the institute of St. Francis, that numbers were to be found in all places, who either withstood the president of the society, or at least obeyed him with reluctance. At once, therefore, to satisfy both the lax and the rigid party, after various methods had been tried to no purpose, a division of the order was agreed to. Accordingly, in 1368, the president consented that Paulutius Fulginas, the chief of the more rigid Franciscans in Italy, together with his associates, who were numerous, should live separately from the rest of the brethren, according to the rules and customs they had adopted, and follow the institutes of their founder, in the strictest and most rigorous manner. The * Called, in the German language, die wilgen Ar men. I have in my possession this edict, with other laws of Charles IV. enacted on this occasion, as also many of the papal constitutions, and other records which illustrate this affair, and which undoubtedly deserve to see the light. It is certain that Charles himself, in his edicts and mandates, clearly characterizes those people, whom he there styles Beghards and Beguines, as Franciscan Tertiaries, belonging to that party of the order then at variance with the pope. "They are (to use the emperor's own words, in his edict of the 18th of June, 1369) a pernicious sert, who pretend to a sacrilegious and heretical poverty, and who are under a vow, that they neither ought to have, nor will have, any property, whether special or common, in the goods they use;" (this is the poverty of the Franciscan institute, which John XXII. so strenuously opposed) "which they extend even to their wretched habits."-For so the spirituals and their associates used to do. See Odor. Raynaidus, Annal. Eccles. ad an. 1372, sect. xxxiv. See also the books of Felix Malleolus, written in the following century against the Beghards of Sur zerland. XXXV. This century gave rise to other religious societies, some of which did not long subsist, and the rest never became famous. John Colombini, a nobleman of Sienna, founded in 1367, the order of the Apostolic clerks, who, because they frequently pronounced the name of Jesus, were afterwards called Jesuates. This institution was confirmed by Urban V., in the following year, and subsisted till the seventeenth century, when it was abolished by Clement IX.† The brethren belonging to it professed poverty, and adhered to the institute of St. Augustin. They were not, however, admitted to holy orders, but assisted the poor by their prayers and other pious offices, and prepared medicines for them, which they distributed gratis. But these statutes were in a manner abrogated when Clement dissolved the order. XXXVI. Soon after the commencement of this century, the famous sect of the Cellite Brethren and Sisters arose at Antwerp; they were also styled the Alexian Brethren and Sisters, because St. Alexius was their patron; and they were named Cellites, from the cells in which they were accustomed to live. As the clergy of this age took little care of the sick and dying, and deserted such as were infected with those pestilential disorders which were then very frequent, some compassionate and pious persons at Antwerp formed themselves into a society for the performance of these religious offices, which the sacerdotal orders so shamefully neglected. In the prosecution of this agreement, they visited and comforted the sick, assisted the dying with thei prayers and exhortations, took care of the interment of those who were cut off by the plague, and on that account forsaken by the terrified clergy, and committed then to the * See Wadding, tom. viii. ix. Helyot, Hist. des Ordres, tom. iii. p. 411.-Pagi Breviar. Pontif. tom. iv. p. 189.-Bonanni, and others, who have compiled histories of the religious orders. grave with a solemn funeral dirge. It was with reference to this last office, that the common people gave them the name of Lollards.* The example of these good people had such an extensive influence, that in a little time societies of the same kind, consisting both of men and women, were formed in most parts of Germany and Flanders, and were supported, * Many writers have given us copious accounts concerning the sect and name of the Lollards; yet none of them can be commended for their fidelity, diligence, or accuracy, on this head. This I can confidently assert, because I have carefully and expressly inquired into whatever relates to the Lollards, and from the most authentic records concerning them, both published and unpublished, have collected copious materials from which their true history may be compiled. Most of the German writers, as well as those of other countries, affirm, that the Lollards were a particular sect, who differed from the church of Rome in many religious points; and that Walter Lolhard, who was burned in this century at Cologne, was their founder. How so many learned men came to adopt this opinion, is beyond my comprehension. They indeed refer to Jo. Trithemius as the author of this opinion: yet it is certain, that no such account of these people is to be found in his writings. I shall therefore endeavour, with all possible brevity, to throw all the light I can upon this matter, that they who are fond of ecclesiastical history may have a just notion of it. partly by their manual labours, and partly by the charitable donations of pious persons. The magistrates and inhabitants of the towns, where these brethren and sisters resided, gave them peculiar marks of favour and protection on account of their great usefulness to the sick and needy. But the clergy, whose reputation was not a little hurt by them, and the Walter, who was burned at Cologne, and whom so many learned men have unadvisedly represented as the founder of the sect of the Lollards, is by some called a Beghard, by others a Lollard, and by some a Minorite. The Franciscan Tertiaries, who were remarkable for their prayers and other pious exercises, were frequently called Lollards; and the Cellite Brethren, or Alexians, whose piety was very exem plary, no sooner appeared in Flanders, about the beginning of this century, than the people gave them the title of Lollards. A particular reason indeed for their being distinguished by this name was, that they were public singers, who made it their business to inter the bodies of those who died of the plague, and sang a dirge over them in a mournful and indistinct tone as they carried them to the grave. Among the many testimonies that might be alleged to prove this, we shall confine ourselves to the words of Jo. Bapt. Gramaye, a man eminently skilled in the history of his country, in his work entitled Antwerpia, lib. ii. "The Alexians," says he, "who constantly employed themselves about funerals, had their rise at Antwerp; at which place, about the year 1300 some honest pious laymen formed a society. On The term Lollhard, or Lullhard, (or, as the ancient account of their extraordinary temperance and moGermans wrote it, Lollert, Lullert,) is compounded desty, they were styled Matemanni, (or Moderatists,) of the old German word lullen, lollen, lallen, and the and also Lollards, from their attendance on funeral well-known termination hard. Lollen, or lullen, signi- obsequies. From their cells, they were named Cellite fies to sing with a low voice. It is yet used in the brethren." To the same purpose is the following same sense among the English, who say, lull a-sleep, passage in his work entitled Lovanium: "The which signifies to sing any one into a slumber with Alexians, who were wholly engaged in taking care a sweet indistinct voice. See Franc. Junii Etymo. of funerals, now began to appear. They were lay. logicon Anglicanum. The word is also used in the men, who, having wholly devoted themselves to same sense among the Flemings, Swedes, and other works of mercy, were named Lollards and Matenations, as appears by their respective dictionaries. manni. They made it their sole business to take Among the Germans, both the sense and pronuncia- care of all such as were sick, or out of their senses. tion of it have undergone some alteration; for they These they attended both privately and publicly, and say, lallen, which signifies to pronounce indistinctly, buried the dead." The same learned author tells or stammer. Lolhard, therefore, is a singer, or one thus, that he transcribed some of these particulars who frequently sings. For, as the word beggen, from an old diary written in Flemish rhyme. Hence which universally signifies to request any thing fer- we find in the Annals of Holland and Utrecht, in vently, is applied to devotional requests or prayers, Ant. Matthæi Analect. vet. Evi, tom. i. p. 431, the and, in the stricter sense in which it is used by the following words: "Die Lollardtjes die brochten de Germans, denotes praying fervently to God; in the dooden by een, i. e. the Lollards who collected the same manner the word lollen, or lullen, is transferred dead bodies;" which passage is thus paraphrased by from a common to a sacred song, and signifies, in Matthæus: "The managers of funerals, and carriers its most limited sense, to sing a hymn. Lolhard, of the dead, of whom there was a fixed company, therefore, in the vulgar tongue of the ancient Ger- were a set of mean, worthless creatures, who usually mans, denotes a person who is continually praising spoke in a canting mournful tone, as if bewailing the God with a song, or singing hymns to his honour. dead; and hence it came to pass, that a street in Hocsemius, a canon of Liege, has well apprehended Utrecht, in which most of these people lived, was and expressed the force of this word in his Gesta called the Loller street." The same reason that Pontificum Leodiensium, lib. i. cap. xxxi. in Jo. changed the word Beghard from its primitive meanChapeauvilli Gestis Pontificum Tungrensium et ing, contributed also to give, in process of time, a differLeodiensium, tom. ii. p. 350. "In the same year," ent signification to that of Lollard, even to its being (1309,) says he, "certain strolling hypocrites, who assumed by persons that dishonoured it; for, among were called Lollards, or praisers of God, deceived those Lollards who made such extraordinary presome women of quality in Hainault and Brabant." tensions to piety and religion, and spent the great Because those who praised God generally did it in est part of their time in meditation, prayer, and the verse, to praise God, in the Latin style of the middle like acts of piety, there were many abominable hypo ages, meant to sing to him; and such as were fre- crites, who entertained the most ridiculous opinions, quently employed in acts of adoration, were called and concealed the most enormous vices, under the religious singers; and, as prayers and hymns are re- specious mask of this extraordinary profession. But garded as a certain external sign of piety toward it was chiefly after the rise of the Alexians, or CelGod, those who aspire to a more than ordinary de-lites, that the name Lollard became infamous. For gree of piety and religion, and for that purpose were more frequently occupied in singing hymns than others, were, in the popular language, called Lollhards. Hereupon this word acquired the same mean. ing with the term Beghard, which denoted a person remarkable for piety; for in all the old records, from the eleventh century, these two words are synonymous: so that all who were styled Beghards are also called Lollards, which may be proved to a demonstration from many authors. The Brethren of the free spirit, of whom we have already given a large account, are by some styled Beghards, by others Lollards. The followers of Gerard Groote, or Priests of the community, are frequently called Lollard Brethren. The good man the priests and monks, being inveterately exasperated After him, the most celebrated writers of this class were Durand of St. Portian, who combatted the commonly received doctrine of the divine co-operation with the human will,† Antonius Andreas, Hervæus Natalis, Francis Mayronius, Thomas Bradwardine, an acute, in genious man, Peter Aureolus, John Bacon, William Occam, Walter Burlæus, Peter de Alliaco, Thomas of Strasburg, and Gregory de Rimini.§ Mendicant friars, who found their profits di- || rank; and, though not entitled to any praise minished by the growing credit of these stran- for his candour and ingenuity, was by no gers, persecuted them vehemently, and accused means inferior to any of his contemporaries in them to the popes of many vices and intolera- acuteness and subtlety of genius.* ble errors. Hence it was, that the word Lollard, which originally carried a good meaning, became a term of reproach, to denote a person who, under the mask of extraordinary piety, concealed either pernicious sentiments or enornous vices. But the magistrates, by their recommendations and testimonials, supported the Lollards against their malignant rivals, and obtained several papal constitutions, by which their institute was confirmed, and their persons, exempted from the cognizance of the inquisitors, were subjected entirely to the jurisdiction of the bishops. But, as these measures were insufficient to secure them from molestation, Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472, obtained a solemn bull from pope Sixtus IV., ordering that the Cellites, or Lollards, should be ranked among the religious orders, and delivered from the jurisdiction of the bishops; and,|| in 1506, Julius II. granted them yet greater privileges. Many societies of this kind are yet subsisting at Cologne, and in the cities of Flanders, though they have evidently departed from their ancient rules.* XXXVII. Among the Greek writers of this century, the following were the most eminent: Nicephorus Callistus, whose Ecclesiastical History we have already mentioned; Matthew Blastares, who illustrated and explained the canon law of the Greeks; Balaam, who was a very zealous champion in behalf of the Grecian cause against the tins; Gregory Acindynus, an inveterate enemy of the Palamites; Among the Mystic divines, Jo. Tauler and Jo. Ruysbrock, though not entirely free from errors, were eminent for their wisdom and integrity; Nicolas Lyranus, or de Lyra, acquired great reputation by his Compendious Exposi tion of the whole Bible; Rayner of Pisa, is celebrated for his Sum mary of Theology, and Astesanus for his Summary of Cases of Conscience. CHAPTER III. Concerning the Doctrine of the Christian Church during this Century. I. ALL those who are well acquainted with the history of these times, must acknowledge, that religion, either as it was taught in the schools, or inculcated upon the people as the rule of their conduct, was so extremely adulterated and deformed, that there was not a sinLa-gle branch of the Christian doctrine, which retained its primitive lustre and beauty. Hence it may easily be imagined, that the Waldenses and others, who ardently wished for a reformation of the church, and had separated themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome, though every where exposed to the fury of the inquisitors and monks, yet increased from day to day, and baffled all the attempts that were made for their extirpation. Many Theophanes, bishop of Nice, a laborious de- of these poor people, having observed, that fender of the truth of Christianity against the || great numbers of their party perished by the Jews, and the rest of its enemies; flames and other punishments, fled out of Italy, France, and Germany, into Bohemia, and the adjacent countries, where they afterwards associated with the Hussites, and other separa tists from the church of Rome. John Cantacuzenus, famous for his history of his own time, and his confutation of the Mohammedan law; Nicephorus Gregoras, who compiled the Byzantine history, and left some other monuments of his genius to posterity; Nilus Cabasilas, Nilus Rhodius, and Nilus|| Damyla, who most warmly maintained the cause of their nation against the Latin writers; Philotheus, several of whose tracts are yet extant, and seem well adapted to excite a devotional temper and spirit; Gregory Palamas, of whom more will be said hereafter. XXXVIII. From the prodigious number of the Latin writers of this century, we shall only select the most famous. Among the scholastic doctors, who blended philosophy with divinity, John Duns Scotus, a Franciscan, and the great antagonist of Thomas, held the first || * Besile many others, whom it is unnecessary to mention here, see Egid. Gelenius, de admiranda sacra et civili magnitudine urbis Coloniæ, lib. iii. Syntagm. li. p. 534, 598.-Jo. Bapt. Gramaye, in Antiquit. Belg.-Anton. Sanderus, in Brabantia et Flaniria illustrat.-Aub. Miræus, in Operibus Diplomatico-Historicis, and many other writers of this period in various places of their works. I may add,|| that the Lollards are by many called die Nollbruder, from nollen, an ancient German word. † See Launoy's treatise, entitled, Syllabus rationum, quibus Durandi causa defenditur; also Gallia Christ. tom. ii. Rich. Simon, Lettres Choisies, tom. iv. p. 232 and Critique de la Biblioth. des Auteurs Ecclesiast. par M. Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 360. Steph. Souciet, in Ob servationibus ad h. 1. p. 703.-Nouv. Dict. Hist. et Crit. tom. ii. p. 500. He was archbishop of Canter bury. For a full account of all these persons, see Ar toire de l'Eglise Gallicane, fom. xiv. the Hebrew language, but not well versed in the Greek, and was therefore much happier in his exposition of the Old Testament, than in that of the New.* All the other divines, who applied themselves to this kind of writing, were servile imitators of their predecessors. They either culled choice sentences from the writings of the more ancient doctors; or, departing from the obvious meaning of the words, they tortured the sacred writers to accommodate them to senses that were mysterious and abstruse. They who are desirous of being acquainted with this art, may have recourse to Vitalis a Furno, in his Moral Mirror of the Scriptures, or to Ludolphus of Saxony, in his Psalter Spiritualized.‡ The philosophers, who commented upon the sacred writings, sometimes proposed subtle questions, drawn from what was called, in this century, Internal Science, and solved them in a dexterous and artful man ner. they defined and explained the principal doc trines of revealed religion in such a way, as really tended to overturn them, and fell into opinions that were evidently absurd and impious. Hence it came to pass, that some of them were compelled to abjure their errors, others to seek their safety in flight; some had their writings publicly burned, and others were thrown into prison. However, when these commotions were quelled, most of them returned, though with prudence and caution, to their former way of thinking, perplexed their adversaries by various contrivances, and dcprived them of their reputation, their profits, and many of their followers. V. It is remarkable, that the scholastic doctors, or philosophical theologists, far from agreeing among themselves, were furiously engaged in disputations with each other concerning many points. The flame of their controversy was, in this century, supplied with copious accessions of fuel, by John Duns Scotus, a learned friar already mentioned, who, III. The greatest part of the doctors of this century, both Greek and Latin, followed the rules of the peripatetic philosophy, in expound-animated against the Dominicans by a warm ing and teaching the doctrines of religion; and the Greeks, from their commerce with the Latins, seemed to have acquired some knowledge of those methods of instruction which were used in the western schools. Even to this day, the Greeks read, in their own tongue, the works of Thomas, and other capital writers of the scholastic class, which in this age were translated and introduced into the Greek church by Demetrius Cydonius and others.§ Prodigious numbers among the Latins were fond of this subtle method, in which John Scotus, Durand of St. Portian, and William Occam, peculiarly excelled. Some few had recourse to the decisions of Scripture and tradition in explaining divine truths, but they were overborne by the immense tribe of logicians, who carried all before them. IV. This superiority of the schoolmen did not, however, prevent some wise and pious men among the Mystics, and in other sects, from severely censuring this presumptuous method of bringing before the tribunal of philosophy matters of pure revelation. Many, as it appears, were bold enough to oppose the reigning passion, and to recall the youth designed for the ministry, to the study of the Scriptures, and the writings of the ancient fathers. This proceeding kindled the flame of discord almost every where; but this flame raged with peculiar violence in some of the more famous universities, especially in those of Paris and Oxford, where many sharp disputes were continually carried on against the philosophical divines by those of the biblical party, who, though greatly inferior to their antagonists in point of number, were sometimes victorious. For the philosophical legions, chiefly tutored by Dominicans and Franciscans, were often extremely rash in their manner of disputing; Rich. Simon, Histoire des principaux Commentateurs du N. T. p. 447, and Critique de la Biblioth. des Auteurs Eccles. par M. Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 352.-Wadding, tom. v. p. 264. † Speculum Morale totius Scripturæ. Psalterium juxta spiritualem Sensum. Rich. Simon. Creance de l'Eglise Orientale sur Transubstantiation, p. 166. spirit of jealousy, had attacked and attempted to disprove several doctrines of Thomas Aquinas. Upon this, the Dominicans, taking the alarm, united from all quarters to defend their favourite doctor, whom they justly considered as the leader of the scholastics, while the Franciscans espoused with ardour the cause of Scotus, whom they looked upon as a divine sage sent down from heaven to enlighten bewildered and erring mortals. Thus these powerful and flourishing orders were again divided; and hence originated the two famous sects, the Scotists and Thomists, which, to this day, dispute the field of controversy in the Latin schools. The chief points about which they disagree are, the nature of the divine co-operation with the human will, the measure of divine grace that is necessary to salvation, the unity of form in man, or personal identity, and other abstruse and minute questions, the enumeration of which is foreign to our purpose. We shall only observe, that what contributed most to exalt the reputation of Scotus, and to cover him with glory, was his demonstration and defence of what was called the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary against the Dominicans, who entertained different notions of that point. VI. A prodigious number of the people, denominated Mystics, resided, and propagated their tenets, in almost every part of Europe. There were, undoubtedly, among them many persons of eminent piety, who endeavoured to wean men from an excessive attachment to the external part of religion, and to form them to the love of God, and the practice of genuine * See Boulay, tom. iv.-In 1340, several opinions of the schoolmen, concerning the Trinity and other doctrines, were condemned, p. 266.-In 1347, M. Jo. de Mercuria and Nic. de Ultricuria were obliged to abjure their errors, p. 298, 308.-In 1348, one Simon was convicted of some horrible errors, p. 322.-The same fate, in 1354, befell Guido of the Augustine order, p. 329. In 1362, the like happened to one Louis, p. 374, to Jo. de Calore, p. 377; in 1365, to Dion. Soul lechat, p. 382. Oxford also had its share in transactions of this nature. See Ant. Wood, tom. i. p. 153 183. + See Wadding, tom. vi. p 2. virtue. Such, among others, were Taulerus, || that were not altogether unworthy of notice. Ruysbrockius, Suso, and Gerard of Zutphen,* who, it must be allowed, have left many writings that are exceedingly well calculated to excite pious dispositions in the minds of their readers, though want of judgment, and a propensity to indulge enthusiastic visions, are failings common to them all. But there were also some senseless fanatics belonging to this party, who ran from one place to another, recommending a most unaccountable extinction of all the rational faculties, whereby they idly imagined the human mind would be transfused into the divine essence, and thus led their proselytes into a foolish kind of piety, that in too many cases bordered nearly upon licentiousness. The religious phrenzy of these enthusiasts rose to such a height, as rendered them detestable to the sober sort of Mystics, who charged their followers to have no connexions with them.† The learned Bradwardine, an English divine, advanced many pertinent and ingenious remarks, tending to confirm the truth of Christianity, in a Book upon Providence. The work, entitled, Collyrium Fidei contra Hæreticos, or, the " Eye-salve of Faith against the Heretics," shows, that its author, Álvaro Pelagio, was a well-meaning and judicious man, though he has by no means exhausted the subject in this performance. Nicolas de Lyra wrote against the Jews, as did also Porchetus Salvaticus, whose treatise, entitled, "The Triumph of Faith," is chiefly borrowed from the writings of Raymond Martin. Both these writers are much inferior to Theophanes, whose "Book against the Jews, and his Harmony between the Old and New Testament," contain many observations that are by no means contemptible. IX. During this century, there were some promising appearances of a reconciliation between the Greeks and Latins. For the former, apprehending that they might want assistance to set bounds to the power of the Turks, which about this time was continually increasing, often pretended a willingness to submit to the Latin canons. Accordingly, in 1339, Andronicus the Younger sent Balaam as his ambusi-bassador into the west, to desire a reconciliation in his name. In 1349, another Grecian embassy was sent to Clement VI. for the same purpose, and, in 1356, a third was dispatched upon a like errand to Innocent VI. Nor was this all; for, in 1367, the Grecian patriarch arrived at Rome, in order to negotiate this important matter, and was followed, in 1369, by the emperor himself, John Palæologus, who, in order to conciliate the friendship and goodwill of the Latins, published a confession of his faith, which was agreeable to the sentiments of the Roman pontiff. But, notwithstanding these prudent and pacific measures, the major part of the Greeks could not be persuaded by any means to drop the controversy, or to be reconciled to the church of Rome, though several of them, from views of interest or ambition, expressed a readiness to submit to its demands; so that this whole century was spent partly in furious debates, and partly in fruitless negotiations.* VII. It is needless to say much concerning those who applied themselves to the study of morality, as their spirit is nearly of the same kind with that of the authors whom we have already noticed; though it may be proper to mention two circumstances, by which the reader may ascertain the true state of this science. The first is, that, about this time, more writers than in any former century made it their ness to collect and solve, what they styled, Cases of Conscience; by which Astesanus, an Italian, Monaldus, and Bartholomew of St. Concordia, acquired a reputation superior to that of any of their contemporaries. This kind of writing was of a piece with the education then received in the schools, since it taught people to quibble and wrangle, instead of forming them to a sound faith and a suitable practice. A second thing worthy of notice is, that moral duties were explained, and their practice enforced, by allegories and comparisons of a new and whimsical kind, even by examples drawn from the natures, properties, and actions of the brute creation. These writers began, for instance, by explaining the nature and qualities of some particular animal, and then applied their description to human life and manners, to characterize the virtues and vices of moral agents. The most remarkable productions of this sort are Nieder's Formicarius, a treatise concerning Bees by Thomas Brabantinus, dissertations upon Beasts by Hugh of St. Victor, and a tract by Thomas Whalley, entitled, The Nature of Brute Animals moralized. VIII. The defenders of Christianity in this age were, in general, unequal to the glorious cause they undertook to support; nor do their writings discover any striking marks of genius, dexterity, perspicuity, or candour. Some productions, indeed, appeared from time to time, * Concerning these authors, see Petr. Poiret, Biblioth. Mysticorum, and Godofr. Arnold, Historia et Descriptio Theol. Mysticæ. Of Taulerus and Suso, Echard treats expressly in his Scriptor. Prædicat. tom. i. p. 653, 677. See also Acta Sanctor. Januar. tom. ij. p. 652. † Joh. Ruysbrockius inveighed bitterly against them, as appears from his Works, published by Laur. Surius, p. 50, 378, and also from his treatise de vera Contemplatione, cap. xviii. p. 608. VOL I.-51 X. In 1384, a furious controversy arose at Paris, between the university and the Dominican order. The author of it was John de Montesono, a native of Arragon, a Dominican friar and professor of divinity, who, in pursu ance of the decisions and doctrine of his order, publicly denied that the blessed Virgin Mary was conceived without any stain of original sin; and moreover asserted, that all who believed the immaculate Conception were enemies of the true faith. The quarrel occasioned by this proceeding would certainly have been soon compromised, had not John, in a public discourse delivered in 1387, revived this opin ion with more violence than ever. For this *See Henr. Canisii Lectiones Antiquæ, tom. iv, p. 369.-Leo Allatius, de perpetua consensione eccles Orient. et Occident. lib. ii. cap. xvi. xvii. p. 782.Wadding, tom. viii. p. 29, 40, 107, 20.1, 289. Baluze Vitæ Pontif Avenion tom. i. p. 348, 380, 403, 772. |