monks, without exception, to the rule of the famous Benedict abbot of Mont-Cassin, annulled the variety of rites and customs that had prevailed in the different monasteries, prescribed to them all one uniform method of living, and thus united, as it were, into one general body or society, the various orders which had hitherto been connected by no common bond.* This admirable discipline, which acquired to Benedict of Aniane the highest reputation, and occasioned him to be revered as the second father of the western monks, flourished during a certain time, but afterwards declined through various causes, until the conclusion of this century, when, under the calamities that oppressed both the church and the empire, it almost entirely disappeared.

of the duties of their high stations, and affected || received from the emperor, he subjected all the that contempt of the world and its grandeur, which they took for magnanimity, though it was really the result of a narrow and superstitious spirit. They abandoned their thrones, their honours, and their treasures, and shut themselves up in monasteries with a view of devoting themselves entirely to God. Several examples of this fanatical extravagance were exhibited in Italy, France, Germany, and Spain, both in this and in the preceding century; and if the allurements of worldly pleasures and honours had too much power over the minds of many, to permit their separating themselves from human society during their lives, such endeavoured to make amends for this in their last hours; for, when they perceived death approaching, they demanded the monastic habit, and actually put it on before their departure, that they might be regarded as of the fraternity, and be in consequence entitled to the fervent prayers and other spiritual succours of their ghostly brethren.

But nothing affords such a striking and remarkable proof of the excessive and fanatical veneration that was paid to the monastic order, as the conduct of several kings and emperors, who drew numbers of monks and abbots from their cloisters, and placed them in stations entirely foreign to their vows and their character, even amidst the splendour of a court, and at the head of affairs. The transition, indeed, was violent, from the obscurity of a convent, and the study of a liturgy, to sit at the helm of an empire, and manage the political interests of nations. But such was the case; and pious princes alleged, as a reason for this singular choice, that the government of a state could never be better placed than in the hands of such holy men, who had subdued all irregular appetites and passions, and were so divested of the lusts of pleasure and ambition, as to be incapable of any unworthy designs, or any low, sordid, or selfish views. Hence we find, in the history of these times, frequent examples of monks and abbots performing the functions of ambassadors, envoys, and ministers of state, and displaying their talents with various success in these high and eminent stations.

XI. The morals, however, of the monks, were far from being so pure as to justify the reason alleged for their promotion. Their patrons and protectors, who loaded them with honours and preferment, were sensible of the irregular and licentious lives that many of them led, and used their utmost efforts to correct their vices, and to reform their manners. Louis the Debonnaire distinguished his zeal in the execution of this virtuous and noble design; and, to render it more effectual, he employed the pious labours of Benedict, abbot of Aniane, in reforming the monasteries, first in Aquitaine, and afterwards throughout the whole kingdom of France, and in restoring, by new and salutary laws, the monastic discipline, which had been so neglected as to fall into decay. This worthy ecclesiastic presided, in 817, in the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, where several wise measures were taken for removing the disorders that reigned in the cloisters; and, in "onsequence of the unlimited authority he had VOL. I.-28

XII. The same emperor, who had appeared with such zeal, both in protecting and reforming the monks, gave also distinguished marks of his favour to the order of canons, which Chrodegangus had introduced in several places during the last century. He distributed them through all the provinces of the empire, and instituted also an order of canonesses, the first female convent known in the Christian world.† For each of these orders the zealous emperor had a rule drawn up, in 817, in the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, substituting it for that which had been appointed by Chrodegangus; and this new rule was observed in most of the monasteries and convents of the canons and canor. esses in the west until the twelfth century, although it was disapproved by the court of Rome. The author of the rule, framed for the canons, was undoubtedly Amalarius, a presbyter of Metz; but it is not so certain whether that which was drawn up for the canonesses, was composed by the same hand.§ Be that as it may, the canonical order grew into high repute; and from this time a great number of convents were erected for its members in all the western provinces, and were

* Jo. Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. Sæc. iv. par. i. Præf. p. xxvii. and Præf. ad. Sæc. v. p. xxv. et ejusdem Annales Ordin. S. Benedict. tom. ii. p. 430.Calmet, Hist. de Lorraine, tom. i. p. 596. For a particular account of Benedict of Aniane, and his illustrious virtues, see the Acta Sanctor, tom. ii. Febr. 606; and the Histoire Lit. de la France, tom. iv. p. 447.

† See Mabillon, Annal. Ordin. S. Benedicti, tom. ii.

p. 428.

This rule was condemned in a council held at Rome, A. D. 1059, under the pontiff Nicolas II. The pretexts used by the pontiff and the assembled prelates, to justify their disapprobation of this rule, were, that it permitted the canons to enjoy the possessions they had before their vows, and allowed to each of them too large a portion of bread and wine; but the true reason was, that this order sent or knowledge of the Roman pontiff. For an account had been instituted by an emperor without either the con of the rule and discipline of these canons, see Fleury's Hist. Eccles. tom. x. p. 163, 161, &c. Brussels edition

in 12mo.

§ Lud. Thomassin, Disciplin. Eccles. Vet. et Novæ part i. lib. iii. cap. xlii, xliii.-Muratori, Antiq. Ital. medii ævi, tom. v. p. 186, 540. No accounts of the Canons are less worthy of credit, than those which are given by writers, who have been themselves members of that order, such as Raymond Chapponel's Histoire des Chanoines, published at Paris in 1699; for these writers, from fond prejudices in favour of their institution, and an ambitious desire of enhancing its merit and rendering it respectable, derive the origin of the canonical order from Christ and his apostles, or trace it up, at least, to the first ages of the Christian church.

Eginhard, abbot of Selingestadt, the cele Theodorus Studites, who acquired a name brated author of the Life of Charlemagne, rechiefly by his warm opposition to the Icono-markable for the beauty of his diction, the clasts, and by the zeal with which he wrote in favour of image worship.§

this very subject, which furnished abundant || sumed their ancient seats, and brought, in their matter of dispute throughout this century.

Bertram, or Ratram, a monk of Corby, who deserves the first rank among the writers that refuted the doctrine of Radbert; and whose book concerning the sacrament of the Lord's supper, composed by the order of Charles the Bald, gave occasion to many contests among learned divines.*

Haymo, bishop of Halberstadt, the laborious author of several treatises upon various subjects, and who is more to be esteemed for his industry and diligence, than for 1 is genius and learning.†

train, a prodigious multitude of devout follies, odious superstitions, and abominable errors. Nor did any encourage and propagate with more zeal and ardour these superstitious innovations, than the sacerdotal orders, the spiritual guides of a deluded people; and if we inquire how it came to pass, that the clergy were so zealous in such an inglorious cause, we shall find that this zeal was, in some, the effect of ignorance, and, in others, the fruit of avarice and ambition, since much was to be gained, both in point of authority and opulence, from the progress of superstition. Among the Greeks and Orientals, Christianity was almost in the same declining and deplorable state, though there arose, from time to time, in the eastern provinces, men of superior abilities, who enHincmar, archbishop of Rheims, a man of deavoured to support the cause of true religion, an imperious and turbulent spirit, but who de-and to raise it from the pressures under which serves a distinguished place among the Latin it laboured. writers of this century, since his works discover an aspiring genius, and an ardent zeal in the pursuit of truth, and tend, in a singular manner, to throw light, both upon the civil and ecclesiastical history of the age in which he lived.§

Walafridus Strabo, who acquired no mean reputation by his Poems, his Lives of the Saints, and his explications of many of the more difficult passages of Scripture.‡

II. The causes of this unhappy revolution, that covered the Christian church with superstition and darkness, will appear evident to such as are at all acquainted with the history of these times. The Oriental doctors, miserably divided among themselves, and involved in the bitterest contentions and quarrels with the western churches, lost all notion of the true spirit and genius of Christianity, and, corrupted and biased by the prejudices and passions that are generally excited and nourished by ill-managed controversy, became incapable of pro

Johannes Scotus Erigena, the friend and companion of Charles the Bald, an eminent philosopher, and a learned divine, whose erudition was accompanied with uncommon marks of sagacity and genius, and whose various performances, as well as his translations from the Greek, gained him a shining and lasting repu-moting the true and essential interests of relitation.

It is sufficient barely to name Remigius Bertharius, Ado, Aimoin, Heric, Regino, abbot of Prum, and others, of whom the most common writers of ecclesiastical history give ample ac

counts.

CHAPTER III.

gion. Intent also upon defending the excellence and divine authority of their doctrine, and discipline against the Latin doctors, and in maintaining among themselves the worship of images, which began to be warmly opposed, they advanced, in the course of these disputes, many things that were highly erroneous; and, as one error follows another, their number increased from day to day. The savage and un

Concerning the doctrine of the Christian Church natural lives of the monks and hermits, whose

during this Century.

number was prodigious, and whose authority I. THE zeal of Charlemagne for the interests was considerable,-who haunted the woods and of Christianity, and his liberality to the learned, deserts, the gloomy scenes of their extravagant encouraged many to apply themselves dili- devotion,-contributed much, among other gently to the study of the Scriptures, and to the causes, to the decay of solid and rational piety. pursuit of religious truth: and, as long as this Add, to all this, the irruptions of the barbarous eminent set of divines remained, the western nations into the west, the atrocious exploits of provinces were happily preserved from many usurping princes, the drooping and neglected errors, and from a variety of superstitious prac- condition of the various branches of learning, tices. Thus we find among the writers of this the ambitious phrensy of the Roman pontiffs, age several men of eminent talents, whose pro- || (who were incessantly gaping after new accesductions show that the lustre of true erudition sions of authority and dominion,) the frauds and theology was not yet totally eclipsed. But and tricks of the monastic orders carried on these illustrious luminaries of the church dis-under the specious mask of religion; and then appeared one after another; and barbarism and we shall see the true causes that founded the ignorance, encouraged by their departure, re-empire of superstition and error, upon the ruin of virtue, piety, and reason.

*We shall have occasion to speak more particularly of Bertram, and his book, in the following chapter.

It is proper to observe, that a great part of the writings that are attributed to Haymo, bishop of Halberstadt, were composed by Remi, or Remigius, of Auxerre. See Casimir Oudinus, Comment. de Scriptor. Eccles. tom. ii. p. 330.-Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. v. p. 111, tom. vi. p. 106.—Le Boeuf, Recueil de Diss. sur l'Histoire de la France, tom. i. p. 278.

See the Histoire de la France, tom. v. p. 544.
The same work, tom. v. p. 416.

III. The ignorance and corruption that dishonoured the Christian church, in this century, were great beyond measure; and if there were no other examples of their enormity upon record, than the single instance of the stupid veneration that was paid to the bones and carcasses of departed saints, this would be sufficient to convince us of the deplorable progress of

See Herm. Conringius, Antiq. Academicæ, p. 309, superstition. This idolatrous devotion was now Sithe Hist. Lit. de la France, tom. v. I 416.

considered as the most sacred and mame More

branch of religion; nor did any dare to entertain || Udalric, bishop of Augsburg, received this dig the smallest hopes of finding the Deity propi- nity in a formal manner from John XV. It is, tious, before they had assured themselves of the however, certain, that before that time the protection and intercession of some one or other pontiffs were consulted in matters of that naof the saintly order. Hence it was that every ture, and their judgment respected in the choice church, and indeed every private Christian, had of those who were to be honoured with sainttheir particular patron among the saints, from ship;* and it was by such steps as these, that an apprehension that their spiritual interests the church of Rome engrossed to itself the creawould be but indifferently managed by those, tion of these tutelary divinities, which at length who were already employed about the souls of was distinguished by the title of canonization. others; for they judged, in this respect, of the saints as they did of mortals, whose capacity is too limited to comprehend a vast variety of objects. This notion rendered it necessary to multiply prodigiously the number of the saints, and to create daily new patrons for the deluded || people; and this was done with the utmost zeal. The priests and monks set their invention at work, and peopled, at discretion, the invisible world with imaginary protectors. They dispelled the thick darkness which covered the pretended spiritual exploits of many holy men; and invented both names and histories of saints* that never existed, that they might not be at a loss to furnish the credulous and wretched multitude with objects proper to perpetuate their superstition, and to nourish their confidence. Many chose their own guides, and committed their spiritual interests either to phantoms of their own creation, or to distracted fanatics, whom they esteemed as saints, for no other reason than their having lived like madmen.

IV. The ecclesiastical councils found it necessary, at length, to set limits to the licentious superstition of those ignorant wretches, who, with a view to have still more friends at court, (for such were their gross notions of things,) were daily adding new saints to the list of their celestial mediators. They, accordingly, declared by a solemn decree, that no departed Christian should be considered as a member of the saintly order before the bishop, in a provincial council, and in the presence of the people, had pronounced him worthy of that distinguished honour. This remedy, feeble and illusory as it was, contributed, in some measure, to restrain the fanatical temerity of the saint-makers: but, in its consequences, it was the occasion of a new accession of power to the Roman pontiff. Even so early as this century, many were of opinion, that it was proper and expedient, though not absolutely necessary, that the decisions of bishops and councils should be confirmed by the consent and authority of the pope, whom they considered as the supreme and universal bishop; and this will not appear surprising to any who reflect upon the enormous strides which the bishops of Rome made toward unbounded dominion in this barbarous and superstitious age, whose corruption and darkness were peculiarly favourable to their ambitious pretensions. It is true, we have no example of any person solemnly sainted by the bishop of Rome alone, before the tenth century, when [* See Dr. Middleton's Letter from Rome, in which we find the names of St. Baccho, St. Viar. St. Amphibolus, Euodia, &c.]

† Mabillon, Act. Sanctor. Ord. Benedicti, Sæc. v. Præf. 44. Launoy, de Lazari, Magdalenæ, et Marthæ in Appuisu, cap. i. sect. xii.-Franc. Pagi Bre viarum Pontif. Romanor. tom. ii. p. 259, tom. iii. p. 30. See Dan. Papebrochius, de solennium Canonizationum

V. This preposterous multiplication of saints was a new source of abuses and frauds. It was thought necessary to write the lives of these celestial patrons, in order to procure for them the veneration and confidence of a deluded multitude; and here lying wonders were in vented, and all the resources of forgery and fable exhausted, to celebrate exploits which had never been performed, and to perpetuate the memory of holy persons who had never existed. We have yet extant a prodigious quantity of these trifling legends, the greatest part of which were, undoubtedly, forged after the time of Charlemagne, by the monastic writers, who had both the inclination and leisure to edify the church by these pious frauds. The same impostors, who peopled the celestial regions with fictitious saints, employed also their fruitful inventions in embellishing, with false miracles and various other impertinent forgeries, the histories of those who had been really martyrs or confessors in the cause of Christ; these fictions, however, did not pass without animadversion, but were severely censured by some of the most eminent writers of the times.t Various were the motives that engaged different persons to propagate these impositions, and countenance their authors. Some were incited to this by the seductions of a false devotion, which reigned in this perverse and ignorant age, and made them imagine, that departed saints were highly delighted with the applause and veneration of mortals, and never failed to crown, with peculiar marks of their favour and protection, such as were zealous in honouring their memories, and in celebrating their exploits. The prospect of gain, and the ambitious desire of being reverenced by the multitude, engaged others to multiply the number, and to maintain the credit of the legends, or saintly registers. The churches, that were dedicated to the saints, were perpetually crowded

Initiis et Progress. in Propylæo Actor. SS. mens. Maii, subject, of which there is an ample list in the Bibliogra p. 171; and the other authors who have written upon this phia Antiquar. of Fabricius, cap. vii. sect. 25.

* See the candid and impartial account that is given of this matter by the late pope Benedict XIV. in his laboCanonizatione, lib. i. cap. 7. p. 50, tom. i. op. It is to be rious work, de Servorum Dei Beatificatione et Beatorum wished, that historians of the church of Rome would learn to imitate the prudence, moderation, and equity of that illustrious pontiff.

† See Servatus Lupus' Vita Maximini, p. 275, and the candid and learned observations upon this subject that are to be found in various places of the works of the cele brated Launoy: e. g. in his Dispunctio Epistolæ Petri de Marca, de Tempore quo in Gallia Christi Fides recepta, cap. xiv. p. 110, in his Dissertationes de primis Christianæ Relig. in Gallia Initiis, diss. ii. 142, 144, 145, 147, 168, 169, 181.-De Lazari, Magdal. et Marthæ, in Galliam Appulsu, p. 340.-De duobus Dionysiis, p. 527, 529, 530, tom. ii. part i. op. See also Martenne, Thesaurus Anecdotor. tom. i. p. 151.-Histoire Lit. de la France, tom. iv.

p.. 273.

with supplicants, who flocked to them with || with the bones and other secret remains of the rich presents, in order to obtain succour under first heralds of the Gospel, they might comfort the afflictions they suffered, or deliverance from dejected minds, calm trembling consciences, the dangers which they had reason to appre-save sinking states, and defend their inhabithend; and it was regarded also as a very great ants from all sorts of calamities. Nor did these honour to be the more immediate ministers of pious pilgrims return home with empty hands; these mediators, who, as it is likewise proper for the craft, dexterity, and knavery of the to observe, were esteemed and frequented in Greeks found a rich prey in the stupid creduliproportion to their antiquity, and to the num-ty of the Latin relic-hunters, and made profitber and importance of the pretended miracles able commerce of this new devotion. The lat that had rendered their lives illustrious. The ter paid considerable sums for legs and arms. latter circumstance offered a strong temptation sculls and jaw-bones (several of which were to such as were employed by the various pagan, and some not human,) and other things churches in writing the lives of their tutelar that were supposed to have belonged to the saints, to supply by invention the defects of primitive worthies of the Christian church; and truth, and to embellish their legends with ficti- thus the Latin churches came to the possestious prodigies; indeed, they were not only sion of those celebrated relics of St. Mark, St. tempted to this imposture, but were even obli- James, St. Bartholomew, Cyprian, Pantaleon, ged to make use of it in order to swell the and others, which they show at this day with fame of their respective patrons.* so much ostentation. But there were many, who, unable to procure for themselves these spiritual treasures by voyages and prayers, had recourse to violence and theft; for all sorts of means, and all sorts of attempts in a cause of this nature, were considered, when successful, as pious and acceptable to the Supreme Being.

VI. But even all this was insufficient to satisfy the demands of superstition, nourished by the stratagems of a corrupt and designing priesthood, and fomented by the zeal of the more ignorant and stupid sons of the church. It was not enough to reverence departed saints, and to confide in their intercession and succours; it was not enough to clothe them with an imaginary power of healing diseases, working miracles, and delivering from all sorts of calamities and dangers; their bones, their clothes, the apparel and furniture they had possessed during their lives, the very ground which they had touched, or in which their putrified carcasses were laid, were treated with a stupid reneration, and supposed to retain the power of healing all disorders both of body and mind, and of defending such as possessed them against all the assaults and devices of Satan. The consequence of this absurd notion was, that every one was eager to provide himself with these salutary remedies; for which purpose great numbers undertook fatiguing and perilous voyages, and subjected themselves to all sorts of hardships, while others made use of this delusion to accumulate riches, and to impose upon the miserable multitude by the most impious and shocking inventions. As the demand for relics was prodigious and universal, the clergy employed all their dexterity to satisfy these demands, and were far from being scrupulous in the methods they used for that end. The bodies of the saints were sought by fasting and prayer, instituted by the priest in order to obtain a divine answer and an infallible direction, and this pretended direction never failed to accomplish their desires; the holy body was always found, in consequence, as they impiously gave out, of the suggestion and inspiration of God himself. Each discovery of this kind was attended with excessive demonstrations of joy, and animated the zeal of these devout seekers to enrich the church still more and more with this new kind of treasure. Many travelled with this view into the eastern provinces, and frequented the places which Christ and his disciples had honoured with their presence, that,

* Of all the lives of the saints written in this century, those which were drawn up by the monks of Great Briain, and of Bretagne in France, seem to be the most liable to suspicion. Mabillon, Præf. ad Sæc. i. Benedictin.

VII. The study of the Scriptures languished much among the Greeks in this century. Photius, who composed a book of Questions,† relating to various passages of Scripture, an exposition of the Epistles of St. Paul, and other productions of the same nature‡, was one of the few who employed their talents in the illustration of the sacred writings. He was a man of great sagacity and genus, who preferred the dictates of reason to the decisions of authority; notwithstanding all which, he cannot be recommended as a model to other commentators.— The other Greek writers, who attempted to explain the Scriptures, did little more than compile and accumulate various passages from the commentators of the preceding ages; and this method was the origin of those Catena, or chains of commentaries, so much in vogue among the Greeks during this century, of which a considerable number have come down to our times, and which consisted entirely in a collection of the explications of Scripture that were scattered up and down in the ancient authors. The greatest part of the theological writers, finding themselves incapable of more arduous undertakings, confined their labours to this compilatory practice, to the great detriment of sacred criticism.

VIII. The Latin commentators were greatly superior in number to those among the Greeks,

*See Muratori (Antiq. Ital. tom. v.,) who gives examples of the truth of this assertion.

This work, which is entitled Amphilochia, from its having been addressed to Amphilochius, bishop of Cyzicum, consists of 308 questions, and answers to them; a sixth part of which, at least, are to be found in the Epis tles of Photius, published in 1651 by bishop Montague. The greater part of these questions relate to different texts of the Old and New Testament; but these are interspersed with others of a philosophical and literary kind. This work is still extant in manuscript in the Vatican, Barberinian, and Bavarian libraries.

Such as a catena (a chain) of commentaries on the book of Psalms, compiled from the writings of Athana sius, Basil, Chrysostom, &c., and a commentary upon the Prophets, both of which are yet extant in manuscript, the former in the Bibliotheca Segueriana or Coisliniana, and the latter in the Vatican library.