had been divided long before this period, and which CENT. XII.
were distinguished by the titles of Realists and Nomi-
nalists, not only still subsisted, but were subdivided,
each into smaller parties and factions, according as
the two opposite and leading schemes were modified
by new fancies and inventions. The Nominalists,
though they had their followers, were nevertheless
much inferior to the Realists, both with respect to
the number of their disciples, and to the credit and
reputation of their doctrine. A third sect arose
under the name of Formalists, who pretended to ter-
minate the controversy, by steering a middle course
between the jarring systems now mentioned; but,
as the hypotheses of these new doctors were most
obscure and unintelligible, they only perplexed mat-
ters more than they had hitherto been, and furnished
new subjects of contention and dispute '.

generibus et speciebus (he speaks here of a certain philosopher)
in qua
laborans mundus jam senuit, in qua plus temporis con-
sumptum est, quam in acquirendo et regendo orbis imperio con-
sumpserit Cæsarea domus: plus effusum pecuniæ, quam in
omnibus divitiis suis possederit Croesus. Hæc enim tam diu
multos tenuit, ut cum hoc unum totâ vitâ quærerent, tandem
nec istud nec aliud invenirent."

* See the above cited author's Policrat. lib. vii. p. 451, where
he gives a succinct account of the Formalists, Realists, and No-
minalists, in the following words: "Sunt qui more mathemati-
corum formas abstrahunt, et ad illas quicquid de universalibus
dicitur referunt." Such were the Formalists, who applied
the doctrine of universal ideas to what the mathematicians call
abstract forms. "Alii discutiunt Intellectus, et eos universalium
nominibus censeri confirmant." Here we find the Realists pointed
out, who, under the name of universals, comprehended all intellec-
tual powers, qualities, and ideas. "Fuerunt et qui voces ipsas
genera dicerent et species: sed eorum jam explosa sententia est,
et facile cum auctore suo evanuit. Sunt tamen adhuc, qui de-
prehenduntur in vestigiis eorum, licet erubescant vel auctoreni
vel scientiam profiteri, solis nominibus inhærentes, quod rebus
et intellectibus subtrahunt, sermonibus ascribunt."
This was a
sect of the Nominalists, who, ashamed (as this author alleges)
to profess the exploded doctrine of Roscellinus, which placed
genus and species in the class of mere words, or simple denomi-
nations, modified that system by a slight change of expression
only, which did not essentially distinguish their doctrine from
that of the ordinary Nominalists. It appears from all this, that
the sect of the Formalists is of more ancient date than John

CENT. XII.

Those among the learned, who turned their pursuits to more interesting and beneficial branches of science, than the intricate and puzzling doctrine of universals, traveled into the different countries, where the kinds of knowlege, which they wished to cultivate, chiefly flourished. The students of physic, astronomy, and mathematics, continued to frequent the schools of the Saracens in Spain. Many of the learned productions of the Arabians were also translated into Latin"; for the high fame which that people had acquired for erudition, together with a desire of converting the Spanish Saracens to Christianity, had excited many to study their language, and to acquire a considerable knowlege of their doctrine.

Duns Scotus, whom many learned men consider as its founder. See Jo. Sarisbur. Metalogic. lib. ii. cap. xvii. p. 814, where that eminent author describes at large the various contests of these three sects, and sums up their differences in the following words: "Alius consistit in vocibus, licet hæc opinio cum Roscellino suo fere jam evanuerit; alius sermones intuetur: alius versatur in intellectibus," &c.

" Gerard of Cremona, who was so famous among the Italians for his eminent skill in astronomy and physic, undertook a voyage to Toledo, where he translated into Latin several Arabian treatises; see Muratori's Antiq. Ital. medii ævi, tom. iii. p. 936, 937. Mirmet, a French monk, traveled into Spain and Africa, to learn geography among the Saracens. See Luc. Dacherii Spicilegium Scriptor. tom. ix. p. 443, ed. Antiq.-Daniel Morlach, an Englishman, who was extremely fond of mathematical learning, undertook a journey to Toledo, whence he brought into his own country a considerable number of Arabian books; Ant. Wood, Antiquit. Oxon. tom. i. p. 55.-Peter, abbot of Clugni, surnamed the Venerable, after having sojourned for some time among the Spaniards, in order to make himself master of the Arabian language, translated into Latin the Koran, and the Life of Mohammed: see Mabillon, Annal. Bened. tom. vi. lib. lxxvii. 345. This eminent ecclesiastic, as appears from the Bibliotheca Cluniacensis, p. 1169, found, upon his arrival in Spain, persons of learning from England and other countries, who applied themselves with extraordinary assiduity and ardor to the study of astrology. We might multiply the examples of those who traveled in quest of science during this century; but those now alleged are sufficient for our purpose.

37

CHAPTER II.

Concerning the Doctors and Ministers of the Church, and its Form of Government, during this Century.

The lives

clergy.

I. WHEREVER we turn our eyes among the CENT. XII. various ranks and orders of the clergy, we perceive, in this century, the most flagrant marks of licentious and manness and fraud, ignorance and luxury, and other ners of the vices, whose pernicious effects were deeply felt both in church and state. If we except a very small num. ber, who retained a sense of the sanctity. of their vocation, and lamented the corruption and degeneracy of their order, it may be said, with respect to the rest, that their whole business was to satisfy their lusts, to multiply their privileges by grasping perpetually at new honors and distinctions, to increase their opulence, to diminish the authority and encroach upon the privileges of princes and magistrates, and, neglecting entirely the interests of religion and the cure of souls, to live in ease and pleasure, and draw out their days in an unmanly and luxurious indolence. This ap pears manifestly from two remarkable treatises of St. Bernard, in one of which he exposes the corruption of the pontiffs and bishops", while he describes in the other the enormous crimes of the monastic orders, whose licentiousness he chastises with a just severity *.

II. The pontiffs, who successively ruled the Latin The pontiffs church, governed that spiritual and mystical body by extend their

w In the work entitled, Considerationum Libri V. ad Eugenium Pontificem.

* See his defence of the crusades, under the title of Apologia ad Gulielmum Abbatem ; as also Gerhohus, de corrupto Ecclesiæ Statu, in Baluzii Miscell. tom. v. p. 63. Gallia Christiana, tom. i. p. 6. App. tom. ii. p. 265, 273, &c. Boulay's Histor. Academ. Paris. tom. ii. p. 490, 690.

ambitious to

authority.

CENT. XII. the maxims of worldly ambition, and thereby fomented the warm contest that had arisen between

The dispute

concerning

the imperial and sacerdotal powers. On the one hand, the popes not only maintained the opulence and authority which they had already acquired, but extended their views, and labored strenuously to enlarge both, though they had not all equal success in this ambitious attempt. The European emperors and princes, on the other hand, alarmed at the strides which the pontiffs were making to universal dominion, used their utmost efforts to disconcert their measures, and to check their growing opulence and power. These violent dissensions between the empire and the priesthood (for so the contending parties were styled in this century), were most unhappy in their effects, which were felt throughout all the European provinces. Pascal II. who had been raised to the pontificate about the conclusion of the preceding age, seemed now to sit firm and secure in the apostolic chair, without the least apprehension from the imperial faction, whose affairs had taken an unfavorable turn, and who had not the courage to elect a new pope of their party in the place of Guibert, who died in the year 1100.

Unwilling to let pass unimproved the present investitures success of the papal faction, Pascal renewed, in a is fomented council assembled at Rome, A. D. 1102, the decrees

anew.

of his predecessors against investitures, and the excommunications they had thundered out against Henry IV. and used his most vigorous endeavours to raise up on all sides new enemies to that unfortunate emperor. Henry opposed, with great constancy and resolution, the efforts of this violent pontiff, and

Dr. Mosheim's affirmation here must be somewhat modified in order to be true; it is certain that, after the death of Guibert, the imperial party chose in his place a person named Albert, who, indeed, was seised and imprisoned on the day of his election. Theodoric and Magnulf were successively chosen after Albert, but could not long support their claims to the pontificate. See Fleury, Hist. Eccles. liv. lxv. vol. xiv. p. 10. Brussels edition in 8vo.

eluded, with much dexterity and vigilance, his perfi- GENT. XII. dious stratagems. But his heart, wounded in the tenderest part, lost all its firmness and courage, when, in the year 1106, an unnatural son, under the impious pretext of religion, took up arms against his person and his cause. Henry V. (so was this monster afterwards named) seised his father in a most treacherous manner, and obliged him to abdicate the empire; after which the unhappy prince retired to Liege, where, deserted by all his adherents, he shook off, in 1106, the burthen of life and of misery. It has been a matter of dispute, whether it was the instigation of the pontiff, or the ambitious and impatient thirst of dominion, that engaged Henry V. to declare war against his father; nor is it, perhaps, easy to decide this question with a perfect degree of evidence. One thing, however, is unquestionably certain, that Pascal II. not only dissolved, or rather impiously pretended to dissolve, the oath of fidelity and obedience that Henry had taken to his father, but adopted the cause, and supported the interests of this unnatural rebel with the utmost zeal, assiduity, and fervor 2.

of this dis

pute: 5

III. The revolution that this odious rebellion The progress caused in the empire, was, however, much less favorable to the views of Pascal, than that lordly pontiff expected. Henry V. could by no means be persuaded to renounce his right of investing the bishops and abbots, though he was willing to grant the right of election to the canons and monks, as was usual before his time. Upon this the exasperated pontiff renewed, in the councils of Guastalla and Troyes, the decrees that had so often been promulgated against investitures; and the flame broke out with new force. It was, indeed, suspended during a few years, by the wars in which Henry was engaged, and which prevented his bringing the affair

z These accounts are drawn from the most authentic sources, and also from the eminent writers, whose authority I made use of, and whose names I mentioned, in that part of the preceding century which corresponds with the subject here treated.