VIII. The corruption of an order, appointed

about the methods of giving a sufficient degree of stability to their respective governments; to promote, by doctrine and example, the saand when they perceived the subjection of the cred interests of piety and virtue, will appear multitude to the bishops, and the dependence less surprising when we consider, that multiof the latter upon the Roman pontiff, they im-tudes of people were in every country admitmediately resolved to reconcile this ghostly ted, without examination or choice, into the ruler to their interests, by loading him with be- body of the clergy, the greatest part of whom nefits and honours of various kinds. had no other view, than the enjoyment of a Among all the prelates who ruled the church lazy and inglorious repose. Many of these of Rome during this century, there was not ecclesiastics were confined to no fixed places or one who asserted his authority and pretensions assemblies, and had no employment of any with such vigour and success, as Leo, surnam- kind, but sauntered about wherever they ed the Great. It must however be observed, || pleased, gaining their maintenance by imposing that neither he, nor the other promoters of the upon the ignorant multitude, and sometimes same claims, were able to overcome all the ob- by mean and dishonest practices. But if any stacles that were laid in their way, or the vari- should ask, how this account is reconcileable ous checks which were given to their ambition.with the number of saints, who, according to Many examples might be alleged in proof of the testimonies both of the eastern and westthis assertion, particularly the case of the Afri-ern writers, are said to have shone forth in this cans, whom no threats or promises could en-century, the answer is obvious; these saints gage to submit the decision of their controver- were canonised by the ignorance of the times; sies, and the determination of their causes, to for, in an age of darkness and corruption, the Roman tribunal.* those who distinguished themselves from the VII. The vices of the clergy were now car-multitude, either by their genius, their writings, ried to the most enormous excess; and all the or their eloquence, by their prudence and dexwriters of this century, whose probity and vir- terity in conducting affairs of importance, or tue render them worthy of credit, are unani-by their meekness and moderation, and the asmous in their accounts of the luxury, arro- cendency which they had gained over their regance, avarice, and voluptuousness of the sa-sentments and passions, were esteemed somecerdotal orders. The bishops, and particularly thing more than men; they were reverenced as those of the first rank, created various dele-gods; or, to speak more properly, they appeargates, or ministers, who managed for them the ed to others as men divinely inspired, and fill affairs of their dioceses; and courts were gra- of the Deity.

dually formed, where these pompous ecclesias- IX. The monks, who had formerly lived tics gave audience, and received the homage of || only for themselves in solitary retreats, and a cringing multitude. The office of a presby-had never thought of assuming any rank ter was looked upon of such a high and emi-among the sacerdotal orders, were now gradunent nature, that Martin, bishop of Tours, au- ally distinguished from the populace, and were daciously maintained, at a public entertain-endowed with such opulence and such honourment, that the emperor was inferior, in dignity, able privileges, that they found themselves in a to one of that order. As to the deacons, their condition to claim an eminent station among pride and licentiousness occasioned many and the supports and pillars of the Christian comgrievous complaints, as appears from the de-munity.* The fame of their piety and sanctity crees of several councils.‡ was at first so great, that bishops and presbyters were often chosen out of their order;t and the passion of erecting edifices and convents, in which the monks and holy virgins might serve God in the most commodious manner, was at this time carried beyond all bounds.‡

The monastic orders did not all observe the same rule of discipline, or the same manner of living. Some followed the rule of Augustine, others that of Basil, others that of Antony,

These opprobrious stains, in the characters of the clergy, would never have been endured, had not the greatest part of mankind been sunk in superstition and ignorance, and people in general formed their ideas of the rights and liberties of Christian ministers from the model exhibited by the sacerdotal orders among the Hebrews, during the prevalence of the law of Moses, and among the Greeks and Romans in the darkness of paganism. The barbarous na-others that of Athanasius, others that of Pations also, which, on the ruin of the Romans, divided among themselves the western empire, bore, with the utmost patience and moderation, both the dominion and vices of the bishops and priests, because, upon their conversion to Christianity, they became naturally subject to their jurisdiction; and still more, because they considered the ministers of Christ as invested with the same rights and privileges, which distinguished the priests of their fictitious deities.

*Du-Pin, de Antiqua Ecclesiæ Disciplina, Diss. ii. p. 166. Melch. Leydeck. Historia Eccles. Africanæ, tom. ii. Diss. ii. p. 505.

+ Sulpitius Severus, de Vita Martini, cap. xx. p. 339, compared with Dialog. ii. cap. vi. p. 457.

See Dav. Blondel. Apologia pro Sententia Hieronymi de Episcopis et Presbyteris, p. 140.

chomius; but they must all have become extremely negligent and remiss in observing the laws of their respective orders, since the licentiousness of the monks, even in this century, was even proverbial,§ and they are said to have excited in various places the most dreadful tumults and seditions. All the monastic orders were under the protection of the bishops in whose provinces they lived; nor did the patr archs claim any authority over them, as ap

Epiphanius, Exposit. Fidei, tom. i. op. p. 1094.Mabillon's Reponse aux Chanoines Reguliers.

Severus, de Vita Martini, cap. x. p. 320. Dial. i. cap. xxi. p. 426.

Severus, Dial. i. p. 419.-Norisius, Histor. Pelag. lib. i. cap. iii. p. 273. tom. i. op.-Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 35.

§ Sulp. Severus, Dial, i. cap. viii. p. 399.

pears with the utmost evidence from the de-
crees of the councils holden in this century.*
X. Several writers of considerable merit
adorned this century. Among the Greeks and
Orientals, the first place is due to Cyril, bishop ||
of Alexandria, so famous for his learned pro-
ductions, and the various controversies in
which he was engaged. It would be unjust to
derogate from the praises which are due to this
eminent man: but it would betray, on the other
hand, a criminal partiality, if we should pass
uncensured the turbulent spirit, the litigious
and contentious temper, and other defects,
which are laid to his charge.t

After Cyril, we may place Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus (or Cyropolis,) an eloquent, copious, Orosius acquired a considerable degree of reand learned writer, eminent for his acquaint-putation by the History which he wrote to reance with all the branches of sacred erudition, fute the cavils of the Pagans against Christibut unfortunate in his attachment to some of anity, and by his books against the Pelagians the Nestorian errors.‡ and Priscillianists.t

Prosper of Aquitaine, and Marius Mercator, are abundantly known to such as have employed any part of their time and attention in the study of the Pelagian disputes, and the other controversies that were agitated in this century. Vincent of Lerins gained a lasting reputation by his short, but excellent treatise against the sects, entitled Commonitorium.*

Sidonius Apollinaris, a tumid writer, though not entirely destitute of eloquence; Vigilius of Tapsus; Arnobius the younger, who wrote a commentary on the book of Psalms; Dracontius, and others of that class, are of too little consequence to deserve more particular notice.

CHAPTER III.

Concerning the Doctrine of the Church during this Century.

frequently hurried the contending parties into the most dangerous and disgraceful extremes.

II. If, before this time, the lustre of religion was clouded with superstition, and its divine precepts were adulterated with a mixture of human inventions, this evil, instead of diminishing, increased daily. The happy souls of departed Christians were invoked by numbers, and their aid implored by assiduous and fervent prayers, while none stood up to censure or oppose this preposterous worship. The question, how the prayers of mortals ascended to the celestial spirits (a question which afterwards produced much wrangling, and many idle fancies,) did not yet occasion any difficulty; for the Christians of this century did not imagine that ed to the celestial mansions, as to be deprived the souls of the saints were so entirely confinof the privilege of visiting mortals, and tra velling, when they pleased, through various countries. They were farther of opinion, that the places most frequented by departed spirits were those where the bodies which they had formerly animated were interred; and this opinion, borrowed by the Christians from the Greeks and Romans, rendered the sepulchres of the saints the general rendezvous of suppliant multitudes.* The images of those who, during their lives, had acquired the reputation of uncommon sanctity, were now honoured with a particular worship in several places; and many

I. MANY points of religion were more largely explained, and many of its doctrines determined with more accuracy and precision, than they had been in the preceding ages. This was one result of the controversies that were multiplied, at this time, throughout the Christian world, concerning the person and nature of Christ; the innate corruption and depravity of man; the natural ability of men to live according to the dictates of the divine law; the necessity of the divine grace in order to salvation; the nature and existence of human liberty; and other such intricate and perplexing questions.imagined that this worship drew down into the The sacred and venerable simplicity of the images the propitious presence of the saints or primitive times, which required no more than celestial beings they represented; deluded, pera true faith in the word of God, and a sincere haps, into this idle fancy by the crafty fictions obedience to his holy laws, appeared little bet- of the heathen priests, who had published the ter than rusticity and ignorance to the subtile same things concerning the statues of Jupiter doctors of this quibbling age. Yet so it hap- and Mercury. A singular and irresistible efpened, that many of the over-curious divines, ficacy was also attributed to the bones of marwho attempted to explain the nature, and re- tyrs, and to the figure of the cross, in defeatmove the difficulties of these intricate doctrines, ing the attempts of Satan, removing all sorts succeeded very ill in this matter. Instead of of calamities, and in healing, not only the disleading men into the paths of humble faith and eases of the body, but also those of the mind.‡ genuine piety, they bewildered them in the la- We shall not enter into a particular account of byrinths of controversy and contention, and the public supplications, the holy pilgrimages, rather darkened than illustrated the sacred the superstitious services paid to departed souls, mysteries of religion by a thick cloud of unin- the multiplication of temples, chapels, altars, telligible subtilties, ambiguous terms, and ob- penitential garments, and a multitude of other scure distinctions. Hence arose new matter circumstances, that showed the decline of genof animosity and dispute, of bigotry and un-uine piety, and the corrupt darkness that was charitableness, which flowed like a torrent through succeeding ages, and which all human efforts seem unable to vanquish. In these disputes, the heat of passion, and the excessive force of religious antipathy and contradiction,

unnatural than to recommend to Christians, as a necessary condition of salvation, their leaving their whole subs.ance to the poor, to the utter ruin of their children and relations? It must, however, be confessed, that his austerity in point of discipline was accompanied with the most amiable moderation toward those who differed from him in articles of faith. There is a most remarkable passage

to this purpose, in his Treatise concerning Providence, book v. p. 100.

*

This work of Vincent, which is commended by our author, seems scarcely worthy of such applause. I see nothing in it, but that blind veneration for ancient opinions, which is so fatal to the discovery and progress of truth, and an attempt to prove that nothing but the voice of tradition is to be consulted in fixing the sense of the Scriptures.

An ample account of Vincent, Prosper, and Arnobius, is to be found in the Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 305, 342, 369.

eclipsing the lustre of primitive Christianity. As none in these times forbade the Christians to retain the opinions of their pagan ancestors concerning departed souls, heroes, demons, temples, and other things, or even to transfer them into their religious services; and as, instead of entirely abolishing the rites and institutions of ancient times, these institutions were still observed, with only some slight alterations; all this swelled of necessity the torrent of superstition, and deformed the beauty of the

* See the Institutiones Divinæ of Lactantius, lib. i. p. 164, and Hesiod's Op. et Dies, ver. 122.-Compare with these, Sulp. Severus, Epist. ii. p. 371. Dial. ii. cap. xiii. p. 474. Dial. iii. p. 512.-Eneas Gazæus, in Theophrasto.-Macarius in Jac. Tollii Insignibus Itineris Italici, and other writers of this age.

Clementina, Homil. x. p. 697, tom. i. PP. Apostolic. -Arnobius adv. Gentes, lib. vi. p. 254.-Casp. Barthius, ad Rutilium Numantian. p. 250.

Prudentius, Hymn xi. de Coronis, p. 150.-Sulp. Severus, Ep. i. p. 364.-Æneas Gazæus, in Theophrasto

Christian religion and worship with those corrupt remains of paganism, which still subsist

in a certain church.

gen, overlooked the true and natural sense of the words, and hunted after subtile and hidden significations, or mysteries (as the Latins then termed them,) in the plainest precepts of the Scriptures. Several of the Greeks, and particularly Theodoret, laboured, with success and Testament; and their success in that task is to be principally attributed to their perfect knowledge of the Greek language, which they had learned from their infancy. But neither the Greeks nor Latins threw much light upon the Old Testament, which was cruelly tortured by the allegorical pens of almost all who attempt

It will not be improper to observe here, that the famous pagan doctrine, concerning the purification of departed souls, by means of a certain kind of fire, was now more amply explain-precision, in illustrating the books of the New ed and established than it had formerly been.* Every one knows, that this doctrine proved an inexhaustible source of riches to the clergy through the succeeding ages, and that it still enriches the Romish church with its nutritious

streams.

more common, than to see the interpreters of the fifth century straining all the passages of that sacred book, either to typify Christ, and the blessings of his kingdom, or Antichrist, and the wars and desolations which he was to bring upon the earth,-without the least spark of judgment, or the smallest air of probability.

III. The interpretation of the Scriptures employed fewer pens in this century than ined to illustrate and explain it; for nothing is the preceding age, in which the Christian doctors were less involved in the labyrinths of controversy. Yet, notwithstanding the multiplication of religious disputes, a considerable number of learned men undertook this useful and important task. We shall not mention those who confined their illustrations to some one, or a few books of the divine word, such as Victor of Antioch, Polychronius, Philo Carpathius, Isidore of Cordova, Salonius, and Andrew of Cæsarea. We must not, however, pass over in silence Theodoret and Theodore, bishops of Cyrus and Mopsuestia, the two most famous expositors of this age, who illustrated a great part of the Scriptures by their pious labours. They were truly eminent, both in point of learning and genius; and, free and unprejudiced in their search after truth, they followed the explications given by their predecessors, only as far as they found them agreeable to reason. The commentaries of Theodoret are yet extant, and in the hands of the learned; those of Theodore are concealed in the east among the Nestorians, though on many accounts worthy to see the light. Cyril, of Alexandria, deserves also a place among the commentators of this century; but a still higher rank, among that useful and learned body, is due to Isidore of Pelusium, whose epistles contain many observations, which cast a considerable degree of light upon several parts of Scripture.§

IV. It is, however, to be lamented, that the greatest part of the commentators, both Greek and Latin, following the idle fancies of Ori

* See, particularly concerning this matter, Augustin's book de viii. Quæstionibus ad Dulcitium, N. xiii. tom. vi. op. p. 128; de fide et operibus, cap. xvi. p. 182; de fide, spe, et charitate, sect. 118, p. 222. Enarratione Psal. XXXV. sect. 3, &c.

See Simon's Histoire critique des principaux Commentateurs du N. Test. chap. xxii. p. 314; as also his Critique de la Biblioth. Ecclesiast. de M. Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 180. Theodoret wrote Commentaries upon the five books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, the Psalms, the Canticles, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, the 12 minor Prophets, and St. Paul's 14 Epistles.

V. A few chosen spirits, superior to the others in sagacity and wisdom, were bold enough to stand up against these critical delusions, and to point out a safer and plainer way to divine truth. This we learn from the epistles of Isidore of Pelusium, who, though he was not himself entirely free from this allego rical contagion, censures judiciously, in many places, such as abandoned the historical sense of the Old Testament, and applied its narrations and predictions to Christ alone. But none went greater lengths in censuring the fanciful followers of Origen, than Theodore of Mopsuestia, who not only wrote a book con cerning allegory and history, against Origen,* but also, in his commentary on the prophets, did not hesitate to apply the greater part of their predictions to various events in ancient history. This manner of interpreting Scripture was very ill received, and contributed, perhaps, more to raise the general cry against him, than all the erroneous doctrines with which he was charged. The Nestorians fol ||lowed the example of this remarkable and eminent man;§ and they continue to consider him as a saint of the first order, and to preserve his writings with the utmost care, as precious monuments of his piety and learning.

VI. The doctrines of religion were, at this time, understood and represented in a manner that savoured little of their native purity and simplicity. They were drawn out by laboured commentaries beyond the terms in which the

* Facundus Hermianensis, de tribus Capitulis, lib. iii. cap. vi.-Liberatus in Breviario, cap. xxiv. Acta Concilii Constantinopol. II. seu Ecumenici V. tom. iii. Conciliorum, p. 58, edit. Harduini.

Theodore, after his death, was considered as the parent of the Pelagian and Nestorian heresies, though during his life he was an object of the highest esteem, and died in the communion of the church.

Asseman's Biblioth. Orient. Clem. Vatic. tom. iii. sect. 2. p. 227.-Simon's Critique de la Biblioth. Eccles. This appears by the testimony of Cosmas Indicopleustom. i. p. 108, 677. We are assured by Fabricius, tes, a writer of the sixth century, who was undoubtedly upon the testimony of Lambecius, that Theodore's com- a Nestorian; for this author, in the fifth book of his mentary upon the twelve Prophets is still extant in MS. Christian Topography, which Montfaucon published in in the emperor's library at Vienna. See Fabr. Bibl. his new collection of the Greek fathers, maintains that, Græc. tom. ix. p. 162. See also, for an ample and learned of all the Psalms of David, four only are applicable to account of the writings of this author, Lardner's Credi-Christ; and, to confirm this opinion, he boldly asserts, bility, vol. ix. p. 389.

See, for an account of these two authors, Simon's Histoire des principaux Commentateurs du Nouveau Testament, ch. xxi. p. 300.

that the writers of the New Testament, when they apply to Jesus the prophecies of the Old, do this by a mere accommodation of the words, without any regard to their true and genuine sense.

divine wisdom had thought fit to reveal them; and were examined with that minuteness and subtilty which were only calculated to cover them with obscurity; and (what was still worse) the theological notions that generally prevailed, were proved rather by the authorities and logical discussions of the ancient doctors, than by the unerring dictates of the divine word. It does not appear that in this century any attempted to form a complete system of theology, unless we give that title to six books of instruction, which Nicæas is said to have composed for the use of the Neophytes. But, as we have already observed, the principal branches of religion were laboriously explained in the various books that were written against the Nestorians, Eutychians, Pelagians, and Arians. | VII. The number of those who disputed in this century against paganism and infidelity, was very considerable, yet not greater than the exigency of the times, and the frequent attacks made upon Christianity, rendered necessary. Theodoret in his ingenious and learned treatise, de curandis Græcorum Affectionibus, Orientius in his Commonitorium, and Evagrius in his Dispute between Zachæus and Apollonius, opposed, with fortitude and vigour, those who worshipped images, and who offered their religious services to the pagan deities. To these we may add Philip Sidetes and Philostorgius, of whom the latter attacked Porphyry, and the former Julian. Basilius of Seleucia, Gregentius in his Controversy with Herbanus, and Evagrius in his Dialogue between Theophilus and Judæus, exposed and refuted the errors and cavils of the Jews. Voconius the African, Syagrius in his book concerning Faith, Gennadius of Marseilles, who deserves to be placed in the first rank, and Theodoret in his Treatise concerning the Fables of the Heretics, opposed all the different sects; not to mention those who wrote only against the errors of one or other party of sectaries.

from every question; and that was determined as right and true, which appeared such to the greatest number, or had been approved by doctors of the greatest note in preceding times. The acts of the various councils, which are yet extant, manifestly show that this was the case; and this circumstance, combined with what we have already observed with respect to the disputants of the age now under consideration, will make it easy for us to imagine the various defects that must have prevailed in the methods of defending truth, and opposing error.

IX. This absurd imitation of the Roman law in the management of religious controversy, and this preposterous method of deciding truth by human authorities, were fruitful sources of spurious and supposititious productions; for many audacious impostors were hence encouraged to publish their own writings under the names of ancient Christian worthies, and even under the sacred names of Christ himself and his holy apostles, that thus, in the deliberations of councils, and in the course of controversy, they might have authorities to oppose to authorities in defence of their respective opinions. The whole Christian church was, in this century, overwhelmed with these spurious productions, these infamous impositions. This is said to have engaged Gelasius, the Roman pontiff, to call a council, composed of the bishops of the Latin church; in which assembly, after a strict examination of those writings which appeared under great and venerable names, the famous decree passed, that deprived so many apocryphal books of their borrowed authority. That something of this kind really happened, it would be, perhaps, an instance of temerity to deny: but many learned men assert, that the decree attributed to Gelasius, labours under the same imputation with the books which it condemns, and was by no means the production of that pontiff, but of some deceiver, who usurped clandestinely his name and authority.*

VIII. Those who disputed against the Christian sects, observed a most absurd and vicious X. Eucherius, Salvian, and Nilus, shine with method of controversy. They proceeded ra- a superior lustre among the moral writers of ther according to the rules of the ancient so- this century. The epistle of Eucherius, conphists, and, what is still more surprising, ac- cerning the Contempt of the World and the cording to the spirit of the Roman law, than secular Philosophy, is an excellent performby the examples and instructions of Christ and ance, both in point of matter and style. The his apostles. In the Roman courts, matters of works of Mark the hermit breathe a spirit of a difficult and doubtful nature were decided by || fervent piety, but are highly defective in many the authority of certain aged lawyers, who respects: the matter is ill chosen, and is treatwere distinguished by their abilities and expe-ed without order, perspicuity, or force of rearience; and, when they happened to differ in soning. Fastidius composed several discourses opinion, the point was determined either by a concerning moral duties; but they have not plurality of voices, or by the sentiments of the survived the ruins of time. The works that are more learned and illustrious members of that yet extant of Diadochus, Prosper, and Seve venerable body. This procedure of the Roman rian, are extremely pleasing, on account of tribunals, was, in this century, admitted as a the solidity and elegance which are to be standing law, both in the deliberations of coun- found, for the most part, in their moral sen cils, and in the management of religious con- tences, though they afford but indifferent en troversy, to the great and unspeakable detri-tertainment to such as are desirous of preciment of truth; for, by this, reason, and even common sense, were in some measure excluded

* Gennadius Massiliensis, de Scriptor. Ecclesiast. cap.

xxii.

See, for an account of Orientius and Evagrius, the Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 121, and 252. See the Codex Theodos. lib. i. tit. iv. de responsis prudentum

sion, method, and sound argumentation; and indeed this want of method in the distribution and arrangement of their matter, and a constant neglect of tracing their subject to its first

* Pearson, Vindiciæ Ignatianæ, part i. cap. iv. p. 189.Cave, Hist. Liter. Scriptor. Ecclesias. p. 260.-Urb. Godofr. Siberus, Præfat. ad Enchiridion Sexti, p. 79.