SECTION VII. CHARACTER OF PERICLES, &c. I now return to Greece. From the banishment of Themistocles, and the death of Aristides, the exact time of which is not known, two citizens, Cimon and Pericles, divided all credit and authority in Athens. Pericles was much younger than Cimon, and of a quite different character. As he will make a very considerable figure in the following history, it is of importance to the reader to know who he was, in what manner he had been educated, and his scheme and method of government. * Pericles was descended, by the mother's as well as father's side, from the greatest and most illustrious families of Athens. His father, Xanthippus, who defeated at Mycale the king of Persia's lieutenants, married Agarista, niece to Clisthenes, who expelled the Pisistratrides, descendants of Pisistratus the tyrant, and established a popular government in Athens. Pericles had long prepared himself for the design he formed of engaging in state affairs. He was brought up under the most learned men of his age, and particularly Anaxagoras of Clazomene, surnamed the intelligent, from his being the first, as we are told, who ascribed human events, as well as the formation and government of the universe, not to chance, as some philosophers, nor to a fatal necessity, but to a superior intelligence, who disposed and governed all things with wisdom. This tenet or opinion subsisted long before his time; but he perhaps set it in a stronger light than all others had done, and taught it methodically and from principles. Anaxagoras instructed his pupil perfectly in the part of philosophy that relates to nature, and which is therefore called Physics. This study gave him a strength and greatness of soul which raised him above an infinite number of vulgar prejudices and vain practices generally observed in his time; and which, in affairs of government and military enterprises, either disconcerted often the wisest and most necessary measures, or defeated them by scrupulous delays, authorised and covered with the specious veil of religion. These were sometimes dreams or auguries, at other times dreadful phenomena, as eclipses of the sun or moon, or else omens and presages; not to mention the wild chimeras of judicial astrology. The knowledge of nature, free from the grovelling and weak superstitions to which ignorance gives birth, inspired him, says Plutarch, with a well grounded piety towards the gods, attended with a strength of mind that was immoveable, and a calm hope of the blessings to be expected from them. Although he found infinite charms in this study, he did not however devote himself to it as a philosopher, but as a statesman; and he had so much power over himself (a very difficult thing,) as to prescribe himself limits in the pursuit of knowledge. But the talent he cultivated with the greatest care, because he looked upon it as the most necessary instrument to all who are desirous of conducting and governing the people, was eloquence. And indeed those who possessed this talent, in a free state like that of Athens, were reigning in the assemblies, engrossing suffrages, determining affairs, and exercising a kind of absolute power over the hearts and minds of the peo * Plut. in vit. Pericl. p. 153-156. sure of The ancients under this name, comprehended what we call physics and metaphysics; that is, the knowledge of spiritual things, as God and spirits; and that of bodies. * ple. He therefore made this his chief object, and the mark to which all his other improvements, as well as the several sciences he had learned from Anaxagoras, were directed; exalting (to borrow Plutarch's expression) the study of philosophy with the dye of rhetoric; the meaning of which is, that Pericles, to embellish and adorn his discourse, heightened the strength and solidity of reasoning with the colouring and graces of eloquence. He had no cause to repent his having bestowed so much time in this study, for his success far exceeded his utmost hopes. The poets, † his contemporaries, used to say, that his eloquence was so powerful, that he lightened, thundered, and agitated all Greece. It had those piercing and lively strokes, that reach the inmost soul; and his discourse left always an irresistible incentive, a kind of spur, behind it in the minds of his auditors. He had the art of uniting beauty with strength; and Cicero observes, that at the very time he opposed, with the greatest tenaciousness, the inclinations and desires of the Athenians, he had the art to make even severity itself, and the kind of cruelty with which he spoke against the flatterers of the people, popular. There was no resisting the solidity of his arguments, or the sweetness of his words; whence it was said, that the goddess of persuasion, with all her graces, resided on his lips. And indeed, as Thucydides, his rival and adversary was one day asked, whether he or Pericles was the best wrestler?" Whenever," says he, "I have given him a "fall, he affirms the contrary in such strong and forcible terms, that he per"suades all the spectators that I did not throw him, though they themselves saw him on the ground." Nor was he less prudent and reserved than strong and vehement in his speeches; and it is related that he never spoke in public, till after he had besought the gods not to suffer any expression to drop from him, either incongruous to his subject, or offensive to the people. Whenever he went into the assembly, before he came out of his house, he used to say to himself, "Remember, Pericles, that thou art go"ing to speak to men born in the arms of liberty; to Greeks, to Atheni"ans." The uncommon endeavours which Pericles, according to historians, used, in order to improve his mind in knowledge, and to attain to a perfection in eloquence, are an excellent lesson to such persons as are one day to fill the important offices of state; and a just censure of those, T who, disregarding whatever is called study and learping, bring into those employments, upon which they enter without knowledge or experience, nothing but a ridiculous self sufficiency, and a rash boldness in deciding. ** Plutarch, in a treatise where he shows that it is to statesmen that a philosopher * Βαφη τη ρητορική την φυσιολογική υποχευμένος. + Ab Aristophane poeta fulgurare, tonare, permiscere Greciam dictus est. Cic. in Orat. n. 29. Quid Pericles? De cujus dicendi copia sic accepimus, ut cum contra voluntatem Atheniensium loqueretur pro salute patriæ, severius tamen id ipsum, quod ille contra populares homines diceret, populare omnibus et jucundum videretur: cujus in labris veteres comici-leporem habitasse dixerunt: tantamque vim in eo fuisse, ut in eorum mentibus, qui audissent, quasi aculeos quosdam reliquerit. Cic. I. iii. de Orat. n. 188. Not the historian. Plut. in Symp. l. i. p. 610. ¶Nunc contra plerique ad honores adipiscendos, et ad remp. gerendam, nudi veniunt et inermes, nulla cognitione rerum, nulla scientia ornati. Cic. l. iii. de Orat. n. 136. **Plut. in. Symp. lib. i. p. 777. ought chiefly to attach himself, preferably to any other class of men, because in instructing them, he at the same time teaches whole cities and republics, verifies his assertion from the example of the greatest men both. of Greece and Italy, who derived this help from philosophy. Pericles, of whom we now write, was taught by Anaxagoras; Dionysius of Syracuse, by Plato: many princes of Italy by Pythagoras; Cato, the famous censor, travelled to the place where Athenodorus lived, for the same purpose; and, lastly, the famous Scipio, the destroyer of Carthage, always kept Panetius the philosopher near his person. One of the chief endeavours of Pericles also was, to study thoroughly the genius and disposition of the Athenians, that he might discover the secret springs which were to be employed in order to set them in motion; and the manner it was proper to act for acquiring their confidence; * for it was principally in that the great men among the ancients used to make their skill in politics consist. He found by the reflections he had made on the several transactions of his time, that the predominant passions of this people were, a violent aversion to tyranny, and a strong love of liberty, which inspired them with sentiments of fear, jealousy, and suspicion, of all such citizens as were too conspicuous for their birth, their personal merit, their own credit and authority, or that of their friends. He not only was very like Pisistratus, with regard to the sweetness of his voice, and fluency of expression, but he also resembled him very much in the features of his face, and his whole air and manner; and he observed, that the most ancient Athenians who had seen the tyrant, were prodigiously struck at the resemblance. Besides, he was very rich, was descended from an illustrious family, and had very powerful friends. To prevent, therefore, his being obnoxious to the suspicion and jealousy of the people, he at first shunned all affairs of government, which require a constant attendance in the city; and was solely intent upon distinguishing himself in war and dangers. Seeing Aristides dead, Themistocles banished, and Cimon engaged al most continually in foreign wars, and absent from Greece, he began to appear in public with greater confidence than before, and entirely devoted himself to the party of the people; but not out of inclination, for he was far from affecting popular power, but to remove all suspicions of his aspiring to tyranny, and still more, to raise a strong bulwark against the credit and authority of Cimon, who had joined with the nobles. At the same time, he quite changed his conduct and way of life; and assumed in all things the character of a statesman, wholly busied in affairs of government, and entirely devoted to the service of his country. He was never seen in the streets, except when he was going either to the assembly of the people, or to the council. He left off going to banquets, assemblies, and other diversions of that kind, which he had used to frequent; and during the many years that he presided in the administration, he was never seen to go to supper with his friends, except once at the nuptials of a near relation. He knew that the people, who are naturally fickle and inconstant, commonly increase their disregard for those who are always in their sight; * Olim noscenda vulgi natura, et quibus modis temperanter haberetur ; senatusque et optimatum ingenia qui maxime perdidicerant, callidi temporum et sapientes credebantur. Tacit. Annal. 1. iv.e. 33. Plut. de sui laude, p. 441. Ista nostra assiduitas, Servi, noseis quantum interdum afferat hominibus fasti and that too strong a desire to please them, grows at last tiresome and importunate and it was observed that such a behaviour did Themistocles great prejudice. To avoid this error, he used to go very rarely to the assemblies; and never appeared before the people but at intervals, in order to make himself desired; and to preserve such an ascendant over their minds as might be always new, and not worn, and in a manner withered, by an over-great assiduity; wisely reserving himself for great and important occasions. *Hence it was said that he imitated Jupiter, who, in the government of the world, according to some philosophers, busied himself in great events only, and left the direction of those of less importance to subaltern deities. And indeed Pericles used to transact all petty affairs by his friends, and by certain orators that were entirely devoted to him, among whom was Ephialtes. † Pericles employed his whole industry and application to gain the favour and esteem of the people, in order to counterbalance the fame and credit of Cimon. However, he could not equal the magnificence and liberality of his rival, whose immense riches gave him an opportunity of bestowing such largesses as appears to us almost incredible, so much they differ from our behaviour in that respect. Finding it impossible for him to rival Cimon in this particular, he had recourse to another expedient, in order to gain the love of the populace, no less effectual perhaps but certainly not so lawful and honourable. He was the first who divided the conquered lands among the citizens; who distributed among them the public revenues for the expences of their games and shows, and annexed pensions to all public employments: so that certain sums were bestowed on them regularly, as well to gratify them at the games, as for their presence in the courts of justice, and the public assemblies. It is impossible to say how fatal these unhappy politics were to the republic, and the many evils with which they were attended: for these new regulations, besides their draining the public treasury, gave the people a luxurious and dissolute turn of mind, whereas they before were sober and modest, and contented themselves with getting a livelihood by their sweat and labour. By such arts as these, Pericles had gained so great an ascendant over the minds of the people, that he may be said to have attained a monarchical power under a republican form of government; moulding the citizens into what shape he pleased, and presiding with unlimited authority in all their assemblies. And indeed Valerius Maximus makes scarce any other difference between Pisistratus and Pericles, except that the one exercised a tyrannical power by force of arms, and the other by the strength of his eloquence, in which he had made a very great progress under Anaxagoras. This credit and authority, however enormous, could not yet restrain the comic writers from lashing him very severely in the theatres; and it does not appear that any of the poets who censured Pericles with so much boldness, were ever punished, or even called to account for it by the people. Perhaps it was out of prudence and policy that he did not attempt to curb dii, quantum satietatis. Utrique nostram desiderium nihil obfuisset. Mur. n. 21. + Plut. in Pericl. p. 156. Cic. pro *Plut. de ger. rep. p. 811. Pericles felicissimis nature incrementis, sub Anaxagora præceptore summo -fudio perpolitus et instructus, liberis Athenarum cervicibus jugum servitutis imposuit; egit enim ille urbem et versavit arbitrio suo. Quid inter Pisistratum et Periclem interfuit, nisi quod ille armatus, hic sine armis, tyrannidem exercuit? Val. Max. 1. viii. c. 9. this licentiousness of the stage, nor to silence the poets; that he might amuse and content the people by this vain shadow of liberty, and prevents their discovering that they really were enslaved. * But Pericles did not stop here. He boldly resolved, if possible, to weaken the authority of the tribunal of the Areopagus, of which he was not a member, because he had never been elected either † Archon, Thesmotheta, king of the sacrifices, nor Polemarch. These were different employments in the republic, which from time immemorial had been given by lot; and none but those who had behaved uprightly in them, were allowed a seat in the Areopagus. Pericles, taking advantage of Cimon's absence, set Ephialtes, who was his creature, to work clandestinely; and at last lessened the power of that illustrious body, in which the chief strength of the nobility consisted. The people, emboldened and supported by so powerful a faction, subverted all the fundamental laws and ancient customs; took from the senate of the Areopagus the cognizance of most causes that used to be brought before it, leaving it very few, and such only as were of little consequence, and made themselves absolute masters of all the tribunals. Cimon, being returned to Athens, was afflicted to see the dignity of the senate trampled under foot, and therefore set every engine at work to restore it to its pristine authority, and to revive the aristocracy, in the same form as it had been established under Clisthenes. But now his enemies began to exclaim, and excite the people against him; reproaching him, among many other things, with his strong attachment to the Lacedæmoni ans. Cimon had himself given some room for this reproach, by his not paying sufficient regard to the Athenian delicacy: for, in speaking to them he would for ever extol Lacedæmonia; and whenever he censured their conduct on any occasion, he used to cry, "The Spartans do not act in "this manner." Such expressions as these drew upon him the envy and hatred of his fellow-citizens; but an event, in which he nevertheless had no share, made him the object of their utmost detestation. SECTION VIII. AN EARTHQUAKE IN SPARTA, &c. IN the fourth year of the reign of Archidamus, ‡ there happened the most dreadful earthquake in Sparta that had ever been known. In several places the country was entirely swallowed up; Taygetus and other mountains were shaken to their foundations; many of their summits, being torn away, came tumbling down; and the whole city was laid in ruins, five houses only excepted. To heighten the calamity, the helots, who were slaves to the Lacedæmonians, looked upon this as a favourable opportunity to recover their liberty, flew up and down every part of the city to murder such as had escaped the earthquake: but finding them under arms, and drawn up in order for battle, by the prudent foresight of Archidamus, who had assembled them round him, they retired into the neighbouring cities, *Plut. in Pericl. p. 157. In Cim. p. 438. + After some change had been made in the form of the Athenian government, the supreme authority was at last vested in nine magistrates, called Archons, and lasted but one year. One was called Rex, another Polemarchus, a third Archon, and this magistrate was properly at the head of the rest, and gave his name to the year; and six Thesmothetæ, who presided immediately over the laws and fé crees. ↑ A. M. 3534. Ant. J. C. 470. Plut. in Cim. p. 488, 489. |