was, that they all believed they knew what they did not know, and that, for his part, he sincerely professed his ignorance. From thence he concluded, that only God is truly wise, and that the true meaning of his oracle was to signify, that all human wisdom was no great matter, or, to speak more properly, was nothing at all; and as to the oracle's naming me, it no doubt did so, says he, by way of setting me up for an example, as if it intended to declare to all men, The wisest among you is he, who knows, like Socrates, that there is no real wisdom in him. SECTION IV. SOCRATES DEVOTES HIMSELF ENTIRELY TO THE INSTRUCTION OF THE YOUTH OF ATHENS. AFTER having related some particularities in the life of Socrates, it is time to proceed to that in which his character principally and peculiarly consisted; I mean the pains he took to instruct mankind, and particularly in forming the youth of Athens, * He seemed, says Libanius, the common father of the republic, so attentive was he to the happiness and advantage of his whole country. But as it was very difficult to correct the aged, and to make people change principles who revere the errors in which they have grown grey, he devoted his labours principally to the instruction of youth, in order to sow the seeds of virtue in a soil more fit to produce the fruits of it. † He had no open school like the rest of the philosophers, nor set times for his lessons. He had no benches prepared, nor ever mounted a professor's chair. He was the philosopher of all times and seasons. He taught in all places, and upon all occasions; in walking, conversation, at meals, in the army, and in the midst of the camp, in the public assemblies of the senate or people, in prison itself; and when he drank the poison, he philosophised, says Plutarch, and instructed mankind. And from thence the same judicious author takes occasion to establish a great principle in point of government, which Seneca ‡ before him had placed in all its light. To be a public man, says he, it is not necessary to be actually in office, to wear the robe of judge or magistrate, and to sit in the highest tribunals for the administration of justice. Many do this, who, though honoured with the fine names of orators, prætors, and senators, if they want the merit of those characters, ought to be regarded as private persons, and often confounded with the lowest and vilest of the populace. But whoever knows fellat alios; nihil se scire dicat, nisi id ipsum, eoque præstare cæteris, quod illi, quæ nesciant, scire se putent; ipse se nihil scire id unum sciat, ob eamque rem se arbitrari ab Apolline omnium sapientissimum esse dictum, quod hæc esset una omnis sapientia, non arbitrari se scire quod nesciat. Cic. acad. quæst. 1. i. n. 15, * In Apol. Socrat. p. 641. 16. + Plut. an seni sit. ger, resp. p. 796. Habet ubi se etiam in privato late explicet magnus animus.-Įta delituerit (vir ille) ut ubicunque otium suum absconderit, prodesse velit et singulis et universis, ingenio, voce, consilio. Nec enim is solus reip. prodest, qui candidatos extrahit, et tuetur reos, et de pace belloque censet, sed qui juventutem exhortatur, qui in tanta bonorum præceptorum inopia virtute instruit animos, qui ad pecuniam kaxuriamque cursu ruentes prensat ac retrahit, et si nihil aliud certe moratur, in privato publicum negotium agit. An ille plus præstat, qui inter peregrinos et cives, aut urbanos prætor adeuntibus adsessoris verba pronunciat ; quam qui docet, quid sit justitia quid patientia, quid fortitudo, quid mortis contemptus, quid deorum intellectus, quam gratuitum bonum sit conseientia? Senec. de tranquil, an . c. iii. to give wise counsels to those who consult him, to animate the citizens to virtue, and to inspire them with sentiments of probity, equity, generosity, and love of their country; this is, says Plutarch, the true magistrate and ruler, in whatsoever condition or place he be. * Such was Socrates. The services he did the state, by the instructions he gave their youth and the disciples he formed, are inexpressibly great. Never had master a greater number, or so illustrious. Plato, though alone, were worth a multitude. Upon the point of death he blessed and thanked God for three things; that he had endued him with a rational soul, that he was born a Greek, and not a barbarian, and that he had placed his birth in the lifetime of Socrates. † Xenophon had the same advantage. It is said, that one day Socrates met him in the street, and stopping him with his staff, asked him whether he knew where provisions were sold? It was not difficult to answer this question. But Socrates having demanded in what place men learned virtue, and seeing this second question put him to a stand: "If you desire to know it," continued the philosopher, "follow me, and you shall be informed." Which he did immediately, and was after wards the first who collected and published his master's discourses. Aristippus, upon a conversation with Ischomachus, in which he had introduced some strokes of Socrates' doctrine, conceived so ardent a passion to become his disciple, that he grew lean and wan in effect of it, till he could go to the fountain head, and imbibe his fill of a philosophy that taught the knowledge and cure of evil. What is reported of Euclid the Megarian, explains still better how high the passion of Socrates' disciples ran, to receive the benefit of his instructions. There was at that time an open war between Athens and Megara, which was carried on with so much animosity, that the Athenians obliged their generals to take an oath to lay waste the territory of Megara twice a year, and prohibited the Megarians to set foot in Attica, upon pain of death. This decree could not extinguish nor suspend, the zeal of Euclid. He left his city in the evening in the disguise of a woman, with a veil upon his head, and came to the house of Socrates in the night, where he continued till the approach of day, when he returned in the same manner he came. The ardour of the young Athenians to follow him was incredible. They left father and mother, and renounced all parties of pleasure, to attach themselves to him, and to hear his discourses. We may judge of this in the example of Alcibiades, the mot ardent and fiery of all the Athenians. The philosopher, however, never spared him, and was always ready to calm the sallies of his passions, and to rebuke his pride, which was his great disease. I have before related some instances of this temper of his. One day when Alcibiades was boasting of his wealth, and the great estates in his possession, which generally blow up the pride of young people of quality, he carried him to a geographical map, and asked him to find Attica. It was so small it could scarce be discerned upon that draught; he found it, however, though with some difficulty: but upon being desired to point out his own estate there, "It is too small," says he, " to be distinguished "in so little a space." "See then," replied Socrates, "how much you are affected about an imperceptible point of land." This reasoning might have been urged much further still. For what was Attica compar 66 *Plut. in Mario. p. 433. Plut. de curios. p. 516. Aul. Gel. Noct. Att. 1. vi. c. 10, Diog. in Xenoph. p. 120. Plut in Pericl. p. 103. ed to all Greece, Greece to Europe, Europe to the whole world, and the world itself to the vast extent of the infinite orbs which surround it? What an insect, what a nothing, is the most powerful prince of the earth in the midst of this abyss of bodies and immense spaces, and how little of it does he occupy! The young people of Athens, dazzled with the glory of Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles, and full of a wild ambition, after having received for some time the lessons of the sophists, who promised to make them very great politicians, conceived themselves capable of every thing, and aspired at the highest employments. One of these, named Glauco, had taken it so strongly into his head to enter upon the administration of the public affairs, though not 20 years old, that none of his family or friends were able to divert him from a design so little consistent with his age and capacity. Socrates, who had an affection for him upon account of Plato his brother, was the only person that could prevail upon him to change his resolution. Meeting him one day, he accosted him so happily with discourse, that he engaged him to give him the hearing. "You are desirous then to govern "the republic," said he to him. "True," replied Glauco. "You cannot "have a more noble design," answered Socrates: " for if you succeed, you "will have it in your power to serve your friends effectually, to aggran"dize your family, and to extend the confines of your country. You will "make yourself known not only to Athens, but throughout all Greece, and "perhaps your renown like that of Themistocles, may spread amongst "the barbarous nations. In short, wherever you are, you will attract the "respect and admiration of the whole world." So smooth and insinuating a prelude was extremely pleasing to the young man, who was taken by his blind side. He staid willingly, gave no occasion to press him on that account, and the conversation continued. "Since you desire to be esteemed and honoured, no doubt your view is to "be useful to the public?" "Certainly." "Tell me then, I beg you, in "the name of the gods, what is the first service you propose to render "to the state?" As Glauco seemed at a loss, and meditated upon what he should answer: "I presume," continues Socrates, "it is to enrich it, "that is to say, to augment its revenues." "My very thought." "You "are well versed then undoubtedly in the revenues of the state, and know "perfectly to what they may amount: you have not failed to make them "your particular study, in order that if a fund should happen to fail by an "unforeseen accident you might be able to supply the deficiency by anoth"er." "I protest," replied Glauco," that never entered into my thoughts." "At least you will tell me to what the expences of the public amount: for "you must know the importance of retrenching such as are superfluous." "I own I am as little informed in this point as the other." "You must "therefore refer your design of enriching the state till another time; "for it is impossible you should do it, whilst you are unacquainted with its "revenues and expences." "But," said Glauco, "there is still another means which you have not "mentioned. A state may be enriched by the ruin of its enemies." "You are in the right," replied Socrates. "But that depends upon its being the strongest; otherwise it incurs the danger of losing what it has. "For which reason, he who talks of engaging in a war, ought to know "the forces on both sides; that if he finds his own party strongest he may "boldly advise the war, and, if weakest, dissuade the people from under * Xenoph. Merab. I. iii. p. 772–774. "I "taking it. Now do you know the strength of our republic, and that of our enemies, by sea and land? Have you a state of them in writing? Be so kind to let me see it." I have it not at present," said Glauco. "see then," said Socrates," that we shall not presently enter into a war, "if you are charged with the government; for you have abundance of en"quiries to make, and much pains to go through, before you will resolve 66 upon it." He ran over in this manner several other articles no less important, with which Glauco appeared equally unacquainted; till he brought him to confess how ridiculous those people were, who have the rashness to intrude into government without any other preparation for the service of the public, than that of an high esteem for themselves, and an immoderate ambition of rising to the first places and dignities. "Have a care, dear Glauco," ," said he to him, "lest a too warm desire of honours should deceive you into pursuits, that may cover you with shame, by setting your incapacity and slender abilities in full light." 66 Glauco improved from the wise admonitions of Socrates, and took time to inform himself in private, before he ventured to appear in public. This is a lesson for all ages, and may be very useful to persons in all stations and conditions of life. *Socrates did not urge his friends to enter carly upon public employments; but first to take pains for the attainment of the knowledge necessary to their success in them. "A man must be very simple," said he, "to believe that the mechanic arts are to be acquired without the help of proper masters, and that the knowledge requisite in governing states, "which is the highest degree of human prudence, demands no previous "labour and application." His great care in regard to those who aspired at public employments, was to form their manners upon the solid principles of probity and justice; and especially to inspire them with a sincere love of their country, with the most ardent passion for the public good, and an high idea of the power and goodness of the gods: because, without these qualities, all other abilities serve only to render men more wicked, and more capable of doing evil. Xenophon has transmitted to us a conversation of Socrates with Euthydemus, upon providence, which is one of the finest passages to be found in the writings of the ancients. "Did you never reflect within yourself," says Socrates to Euthydemus, "how much care the gods have taken to bestow upon man all that is ne46 cessary to his nature ?" "Never, I assure you," replied he. "You 66 see," ," continued Socrates, "how necessary light is, and how precious that gift of the gods ought to appear to us." "Without it," added Euthydemus, we should be like the blind, and all nature as if it were "not, or were dead: but because we have occasion for suspense and relaxation, they have also given us the night for our repose.", "You are in the right, and for this we ought to render them continual praises and "thanksgiving. They have ordained that the sun, that bright and luminous star, should preside over the day, to distinguish its different parts, "and that its light should not only serve to discover the wonders of nature, "but to dispense universal life and heat; and at the same time they have "commanded the moon and stars to illuminate the night, of itself dark "and obscure. Is there any thing more admirable than this variety "and vicissitude of day and night, of light and darkness, of labour and rest and all this for the convenience and good of man?" Socrates enu * Xenoph. Memorab. 1. iv p. 800. Ibid. p. 792, CL merates in like manner the infinite advantages we receive from fire and water, in the occasions of life; and continuing to observe upon the wonderful attention of providence in all that regards us, "What say you, pursued he, upon the sun's return after winter to revisit us, and that as "the fruits of one season wither and decay, he ripens new ones to suc-"ceed them? That having rendered man this service, he retires, lest he "should incommode him by excess of heat; and then after having remov"ed to a certain point, which he could not pass, without putting us in danger of perishing with cold, that he returns in the same track to resume his place in those parts of the heavens where his presence is most "beneficial to us? And because we could support neither the cold nor "heat, if we were to pass in an instant from the one to the other, do you not admire, that whilst this star approaches and removes so slowly, the "two extremities arrive by almost insensible degrees? Is it possible not to discover, in this disposition of the seasons of the year, a providence and 47 goodness, not only attentive to our necessities, but even our delights and "enjoyments." "All these things," said Euthydemus, make me doubt whether the gods have any other employment than to shower down their gifts and graces upon mankind. There is one point, however, that puts me to a stand, "which is, that the brute animals partake of all these blessings as well as "ourselves." "Yes," replied Socrates: "but you do but observe, that "all these animals subsist only for man's service? The strongest and most vigorous of them he subjects at his will, he makes them tame and gentle, and uses them successfully in his wars, his labours, and the other "occasions of life." “What if we consider man in himself?" Here Socrates examines the diversity of the senses, by the ministry of which man enjoys all that is best and most excellent in nature; the vivacity of his wit, and the force of his reason, which exalt him infinitely above all other animals; the wonderful gift of speech, by the means of which we communicate our thoughts reciprocally, publish our laws, and govern states. "From all this," says Socrates, "it is easy to discern that there are gods, and that they have man in their particular care, though he cannot "discover them by his senses. Do we perceive the thunder, whilst it "strikes through all things which oppose it? Do we distinguish the winds, "whilst they are tearing up all before them in our view? Our soul itself, "with which we are so intimate, which moves and acts us, is it visible? "Can we behold it? It is the same with regard to the gods, of whom none are visible in the distribution of their favours. The GREAT GOD himself," (these words are remarkable, and demonstrate that Socrates acknowledged one supreme God, the author of all being, and superior to all others, who were only the ministers of his will,) "this great god, who has form"ed the universe, and supports the stupendous work, whose every part "is finished with the utmost goodness and harmony; he who preserves them perpetually in inmortai vigour, and causes them to obey him with a never failing punctuality, and a rapidity not to be followed by our im"agination; this God makes him sufficiently visible by the endless wonders "of which he is author; but continues always invisible in himself. Let us "not then refuse to believe even what we do not see, and let us supply "the defect of our corporeal eyes, by using those of the soul; but espe * Ώρας αρμολάτας προς τ8το παρέχειν, αι ημίν ου μόνον ων δεόμεθα πολλά και παν τοια παρασκευάζεσιν, αλλά και οις ευφραινόμεθα. |