he seeks to draw from them consequences the most absurd, which cover the opponents with confusion.

The will of the people is, by Mencius, always referred to as the supreme power in the State, and he warns princes that they must both please and benefit their people, observing that "if the country is not subdued in heart, there will be no such thing as governing it ;" and, also, "He who gains the hearts of the people, secures the throne, and he who loses the people's hearts, loses the throne."

His estimate of human nature, like many of the Chinese sages, is high, believing it to be originally good, and "that all men are naturally virtuous as all water flows downward. All men have compassionate hearts, and feel ashamed of vice." But he says, also, "“ Shame is of great moment to men ; it is only the designing and artful that find no use for shame."

His own character presents traits widely differing from the servility and baseness usually ascribed to Asiatics, and especially to the Chinese; and he seems to have been ready to sacrifice everything to his principles. "I love life, and I love justice," he observes, "but if I cannot preserve both, I would give up life, and hold fast justice. Although I love life, there is that which I love. more than life; although I hate death, there is that which I hate more than death." And, as if referring to his own integrity, he elsewhere says, "The nature of the superior man is such that, although in a high and prosperous situation, it adds nothing to his virtue; and although in low and distressed circumstances, it impairs it in nothing." In many points, especially in the importance he gives to filial duty, his reverence for the ancient

books and princes, and his adherence to old usages, Mencius imitated and upheld Confucius; in native vigor and carelessness of the reproaches of his compatriots, he excelled him.

Mencius, like Confucius, made large use of ancient illustrious examples, hoping thus to awaken a desire in the rulers of his own time to imitate the virtues of former ages. He often taught by means of parables, and sometimes was drawn into disputation, as appears from the following quotation :

"The disciple Kung-too said to Mencius, 'Master, the people beyond our school all speak of you as being fond of disputing. I venture to ask whether it be so.' Mencius replied, 'Indeed I am not fond of disputing, but I am compelled to do it.'”

It may be interesting to notice how Mencius was appreciated by Chinese philosophers, as compared with Confucius.

The philosopher Ching said, "I do not dare to say altogether that he was a sage, but his learning had reached the extremest point." And again, "The merit of Mencius in regard to the doctrine of the sages is more than can be told. Confucius only spoke of benevolence, but as soon as Mencius opens his mouth, we hear of benevolence and righteousness. Confucius only spoke of the will or mind, but Mencius enlarged also on the nourishment of the passion nature. In these two respects his merit was great." "Mencius" (says Ching) "did great service to the world by his teaching the goodness of man's nature."

"Yen Yuen was but a hair's-breadth removed from a

sage, while Mencius must be placed in a lower rank, a great worthy, an inferior sage."

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Choo-He said, "“ Mencius when compared with Confucius, always appears to speak in too lofty a style; but when we hear him proclaiming the goodness of man's nature, and celebrating Yaou and Shun, then we likewise perceive the solidity of his discourses."

CHAPTER I.

ON GOVERNMENT.

RULERS APPOINTED BY HEAVEN.

Mencius said, "He who with a great State serves a small one, delights in Heaven. He who with a small State serves a large one, stands in awe of Heaven. He who delights in Heaven, will affect with his love and protection the whole empire. He who stands in awe of Heaven, will affect with his love and protection his own kingdom."

"It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'I fear the majesty of Heaven, and will thus preserve its favoring decree.'"

"In the Book of History it is said, 'Heaven having produced the inferior people, appointed for them rulers*

*This may be said to be a cardinal doctrine in Chinese politics. Heaven, Earth, Man, are the three great powers. At first, there were Heaven and Earth, but, being without speech, they needed a vicegerent; therefore they created man : this Man is the Emperor, who by Heaven and Earth is ordained to reign over all people under Heaven; hence, we find that in China divine honors are

and teachers, with the purpose that they should be assisting to God, and therefore distinguished them throughout the four quarters of the empire. How dare any under heaven give indulgence to their refractory wills?' It is said in the Book of Poetry,

"Under the whole heaven,

Every spot is the sovereign's ground;

To the borders of the land,

Every individual is the sovereign's minister !'"

Wan Chang said, "Was it the case that Yaou gave the empire to Shun?" Mencius said, "No.

cannot give the empire to another."

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The emperor

Yes; but Shun had the empire. Who gave it to him?" "Heaven gave it to him," was the answer.

"Heaven gave it to him!' did Heaven confer its appointment on him with specific injunctions?"

Mencius replied, "No. Heaven does not speak. It simply showed its will by his personal conduct, and his conduct of affairs."

“It showed its will by his personal conduct, and his conduct of affairs;' how was this?" Mencius' answer was, “The empire can present a man to heaven, but he cannot make heaven give that man the empire. A prince can present a man to the emperor, but he cannot cause the emperor to make that man a prince. A great officer can present a man to his prince, but he cannot cause the

paid to Heaven, Earth, and the Emperor; hence, also, we perceive a cause for the long continuance of the Chinese government, because rebellion against the emperor would have been rebellion against Heaven: hence, likewise, we perceive how the emperors of China were led to assume superiority over the rulers of other countries.