:

Justin Martyr, endeavoring to give the emperor a notion of the religion of the Christians, after describing the ceremony of consecration, says, "We eat this not as common bread, and drink this not as common wine; but as Jesus Christ, after having been made man by the word of God, had flesh and blood, so we believe also, that the food consecrated by his words, has become the flesh and blood of the man Jesus." (Acts 1.) We know also, that the Christians were accused, by the pagans, of eating, in their secret assemblies, the flesh of an infant-a notion which certainly took its rise from their doctrine of the Lord's supper, of which the former might have heard some obscure account. The Christians, in general (continues the writer), kept this doctrine very secret (disciplina arcani). If they believed that they received Christ only through faith, it is not easy to see why they made such a mystery of it. But this they did, and instructed their catechumens in this doctrine but a short time before their baptism. The dogma of transubstantiation is as old as the communion itself, and was by no means first set up by Parrhasius Radbertus, in the ninth century, as is commonly asserted by the Protestants. There is no reason why that real presence should be limited to the time when the Christian receives the eucharist; for Christ distinctly says, "This is my body," and tenders it, on that account, to his disciples. And how could it be decided at what moment this presence commences, and when it ceases? The first Christians knew nothing about this limitation. They regarded the consecrated host with feelings of adoration; they partook of it with the utmost awe, and carried it with them in times of persecution, to encourage themselves by the enjoyment of it. Origen, a writer of the third century, says, "You, who are allowed to partake in the holy mysteries, you know how to keep the body of the Lord you receive, with all caution and reverence (the Christians received it formerly with their hands), lest any part of the hallowed gift fall to the ground; you believe justly that you bring guilt upon yourselves when, by negligence, you drop any part of it." Equally strong terms are to be found in Cyril's instructions to the new converts, as well as in the liturgy of all the Oriental and Western churches, the testimony of which is of the greater importance, as it is not the testimony of a few single scholars, but the public profession of entire churches. As from the first times, the presbyter of the

multiplying the loaves, he delivered a part of his mysteries (John vi, 48-56; 1 Corinth. xix, 16; Luke xxii. 19, 20; Mark xiv, 22-29; Math. xxvi. 26-28.) It is easily perceived that this rite must have been coeval with the foundation of his religion, and that the apostles every where introduced it and made known its signification. But what the apostles have introduced and preached we learn only by tradition. This tradition, however, tells us that the ordinance of Christ was meant literally. The Lord (proceeds the writer) remained in his church in the congregations of the Christians, the body and the blood of the Savior were offered and tasted in the shape of bread and wine. This was the belief of the church from the beginning; and it cannot be shown that it commenced at any particular time, or supplanted another doctrine. The clearest proof of this is, that a similar doctrine, even if it be not the same doctrine of transubstantiation, is to be found in all the churches, which long since separated from the Catholic. This rite is in remembrance of the death and the resurrection of Jesus. But how (says the writer) can we sin against the body and the blood of Jesus? How can we take it at all unworthily, if the whole ceremony is a mere act of commemoration? To what purpose would be the admonition, "This do in remembrance of me," if there was no meaning attached to it but that of a participation in the fruits of Jesus' death by an act of commemoration? The memory of Jesus is essentially connected with all the benefits of his religion. Further, as soon as we admit of a real presence of Jesus in the eucharist, we must be ready to concede, also, that the bread and wine cease to exist in reality, though they remain still in appearance. That which really exists, is the sacramentally (not visibly) present body and blood of Christ. By a miracle of the Omnipotent, a change is effected, and this we call transubstantiation. It has been proved already, by Leibnitz, that there is no philosophical contradiction in this, and we find it the principle of a whole philosophical school, the sceptics, to dispute the real existence of appearances. Even the oldest Christian fathers, not only in sermons, but in passages explanatory of their doctrines, and destined for the instruction of the catechumens, expressed themselves in such a way as to show us that the first Christians were not only convinced of Christ's being present through our belief, but also that the bread or wine no longer existed.

congregation performed the consecration, the peculiar view of the Catholic church, which considers the spiritual guide of a congregation as a sacrificing priest, is explained. The mass is nothing but this sacrifice, and, so far, as old in its essential character as the Lord's supper, though it first received its external additions and form under Gregory the Great. The Lord's supper is a sacrament, which, by an external symbol, sanctifies the internal man. The Catholic view of communion pervades the whole Catholic religious and ecclesiastical system. This creed of the whole Christian church, the Greek not excepted, as it is represented here, remained uncontroverted until the eleventh century, when the controversy between the Greek and the Latin churches broke out, respecting the bread to be used in the communion-whether it ought to be leavened or unleavened. Respecting the doctrine of the supper, there arose no dispute, till the beginning of the thirteenth century, when the priest Berengarius of Tours denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, but not that of the substantial presence of Christ. The whole church was surprised at this innovation. This gave occasion, in the fourth Lateran council, to a solemn proclamation of the old creed of the church on transubstantiation. This creed continued in full authority, and even Huss did not impeach it; nay, Huss and his adherents were filled with reverence towards the sacrament, and claimed even the cup. It had become customary in latter times, from fear of spilling some part of the blood, to give only the body to the laity, since in the body the blood was contained (doctrine of concomitance). The Hussites, however, believed that the cup was a constituent part of the sacrament, without which the sacrament would not be complete. The church condemned this opinion as a heresy, in the council of Constance, in 1415. By the reformation of the sixteenth century, the whole Catholic system was attacked, as the reformers, rejecting the traditions of the church, took the Bible alone for their guide in matters of belief, and departed, at the same time, from the Catholic theory of communion. If they had left the Catholic doctrine on communion, the priesthood and mass would necessarily have remained too. By what means could the priests of the new sect obtain their consecration? It was therefore necessary to establish a new theory of communion; or, rather, it was the natural consequence, since the new church, founded

on reason, by which the scripture was to be searched, must needs lose a sense of the Catholic mysteries. In the council of Trent, session 13, are pronounced the following canons, which represent the creed of the church:-1. If any one denies that there is contained in the most holy sacrament of the altar, truly, really and substantially, the body and the blood, together with the soul and divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, and, consequently, the entire Christ,-if such a one say, that he is contained therein only as in a symbol, vel figura, vel virtute, anathema sit (let him be cursed). 2. If any one says, that there remains in the most holy sacrament of the altar, the substance of the bread and wine, together with the life and the blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and if he denies that wonderful and miraculous transformation of the whole substance of the bread into the body, and the whole substance of the wine into the blood, whilst there remains only the shape (species) of the bread and the wine, which transformation is termed, by the Catholic church, transubstantiation-anathema sit. 3. If there be any one who denies that there is contained in the venerable sacrament of the altar, under both sorts, and after division has been performed under the single parts of both sorts, the whole Christ-anathema sit. 4. If any one says, that, after consecration has been performed, the body and the blood of Christ is not in the miraculous sacrament of the altar, but that this is only during the tasting, neither before nor afterwards, and that there is not in the consecrated host or the particles, preserved or remaining after the celebration of the Lord's supper, the true body of the Lord-anathema sit. 5. If any one says, either that remission of sins is the principal effect of the sacrament of the altar, or that no other results spring from it-anathema sit. 6. If any one says, that the only-begotten Son of God is not to be adored by external worship, in the holy sacrament of the altar, and to be revered with particular solemnity, nor to be solemnly carried about in processions, after the praiseworthy and universal usage of the church, nor to be presented publicly to the people, and that those who adore him are idolaters-anathema sit. 7. If any one says, it is not permitted to keep the holy eucharist in the pix, but that it must be distributed immediately after the consecration to the by-standers, or that it is not permitted to bear it reverentially to the sick-anathema sit. 8. If any one says, that the Christ offered in the eucharist is

tasted only spiritually, and not sacramentally and really-anathema sit. 9. If any one denies that all Christian believers of either sex, as soon as they are arrived at years of discretion, are bound, after the command of the holy Catholic church, to communicate, at least, at Easter every year-anathema sit. 10. If any one says, that it is not permitted to the officiating priest to administer the sacrament to himself—anathema sit. 11. If any one says, that faith alone is a sufficient preparation for the enjoyment of the holy sacrament-anathema sit. The Catholics have still the præsens numen, as a pledge that the Lord remains with their church. (See Corpus Christi.)

LORENZO DE MEDICI. (See Medici.) LORETTO; a small town in the States of the Church, about three miles from the sea, in the Marc of Ancona, with a bishop, who is also bishop of Recanati, and 5000 inhabitants, who are principally supported by the resort of pilgrims. Pilgrimages are made to the casa santa-the holy house in the cathedral of Loretto, which is supposed to have been the house of the virgin Mary, and which was carried by the angels (1291) from Galilee to Dalmatia, and thence, in 1294, to Italy, near Recanati, and, finally (1295), to the spot where it now remains. This holy house, which is in the centre of the church, is covered, externally, with marble, and is built of ebony and brick. It is 30 feet long, 15 wide, and 18 feet high, and richly ornamented. It has also been imitated at other places (for instance, at Prague). Loretto formerly contained great treasures, collected from the pilgrims. The income of this house once amounted to 30,000 scudi, besides the presents received annually. The pilgrims were estimated at 100,000 yearly. Amongst other curiosities, a window is shown in the holy house, through which the angel Gabriel appeared to Mary, when he announced the birth of the Savior. Raphael's painting of the virgin throwing a veil over the infant is beautiful. The treasures were, in part, expended in paying the contributions imposed by the French (1798); the rest was taken possession of by them. They carried the image of the virgin to Paris, but it was restored with great pomp, December 9, 1802.

L'ORIENT; a fortified and regularly built seaport of France, department of the Morbihan, on the bay of Port Louis, at the influx of the small river Scorf. The harbor is large and secure, and of easy access. It has still some trade, particularly with the French colonies, and is a place of importance, on account of its

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magazines for the use of the royal navy. The principal manufacture is of salt. Population, 17,115; 340 miles W. by S. Paris; lat. 47° 45′ N.; lon. 6° 2′ W.

LORME, Marion de. (See Delorme.) LORRAINE, Claude. (See Claude Lorraine.)

LORRAINE (Lotharingia; in German, Lothringen), so called from Lothaire II, to whom this part of the country fell in the division of the empire between him and his brothers, Louis II and Charles (854), had previously belonged to the kingdom of Austrasia. It was divided into Lower and Upper Lorraine; the former including all the country between the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt, to the sea; the latter the countries between the Rhine and the Moselle, to the Meuse. Lorraine, at a later period, was bounded by Alsace, Franche-Comté, Champagne, Luxemburg, the present Prussian province of the Lower Rhine, and the Bavarian circle of the Rhine, containing 10,150 square miles, and at present forming the French departments of the Meuse, the Vosges, the Moselle and the Meurthe, with a population of 1,500,000 inhabitants. Its forests and mountains, among which the principal is the Vosges, are adapted for the raising of cattle, and contain much game; they also yield copper, salt, iron, tin, and some silver. Salt springs and lakes, abounding with fish, are also to be found. The soil is, for the most part, poor, and not adapted for tillage. The vine is cultivated to a considerable extent. The French and German languages are spoken. The people are of German origin. Lorraine was for centuries a subject of dispute between France and Germany. It was, for a long time, a fief of the German empire. On the death of Charles the Bold, duke of Lorraine, in 1431, without male heirs, the country was inherited by his daughter Isabella. The two grandsons of her sonin-law Frederic-Antony and Claudefounded, in 1508, the principal and collateral Lorraine lines, the latter of which spread in France (the dukes De Guise, D'Aumale, D'Elbœuf, D'Harcourt, belonged to it). From that time forward (1540), France took a decided part in all disputes relating to Lorraine. Charles of Lorraine was driven out, during the 30 years' war, on account of his connexion with Austria. He was restored in 1659, under severe conditions, and, in 1662, he consented that Lorraine should go to France on his death, the house of Lorraine being recognised as princes of the blood. was, however, again deposed, and died

He

in the Austrian service. His brother's grandson Leopold was recognised as duke of Lorraine by the peace of Rys wick (1697). France finally succeeded in her intentions, when Stanislaus, father-inlaw of Louis XV, and the dethroned king of Poland, by the peace of Vienna (November 8, 1738), received the duchies of Lorraine and Bar (with the exception of the county of Falkenstein), which, after his death (1766), were united with France. By the second peace of Paris (1815), a small part, with the fortress Saarlouis, was ceded to Germany, and now belongs to the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine. Besides the principal town, Nancy (q. v.), Lunéville (q. v.) has been distinguished by the peace of 1801. Charles Eugene, duke of Lorraine-Elbœuf, born September 25, 1751, at the commencement of the French revolution, commanded the regiment royal Allemand, under the title of prince Lambesc, and afterwards entered the Austrian service, and died at Vienna, November 21, 1825. He was the last of the younger line. The elder line now rules in Austria, Tuscany and Modena. (See Etienne's Resumé de l'Histoire de Lorraine (Paris, 1825). See also Hapsburg.) LORY. This name has been given to some of the parrot tribe, from their frequently repeating the word. They have, however, no distinct characters of sufficient importance to separate them from the great genus psittacus. They are very active and gay, even in captivity. They are found, for the most part, in the Moluccas, and are held in great estimation in some parts of the East. The most prized is the scarlet lory, which was for a long time unknown in Europe, as the Dutch were at first wholly unsuccessful in transporting it thither; the birds generally died on the voyage. They are now, however, brought across the ocean without much difficulty, and are marked by their tenderness and attachment to their masters. The Javanese appear to have a great predilection for them, and raise them in great numbers. But the most valuable of these birds is the yellow-collared, which is of a deep red color, with a circle of yellow around its neck. It is principally found in New Guinea. It is very docile and familiar, and has great aptness in learning to speak; this, added to its beauty, and its extreme delicacy, as well as the difficulty of rearing it, renders it very highly esteemed. A single bird has been sold in London as high as 20 guineas.

Lor; a river of France, which rises in the department of Lozère, and joins the

Garonne, near Aiguillon; length, 150 miles. It gives name to a department. (See Department.)

LOT; according to the Hebrew history, a nephew of Abraham, who, to avoid dissensions between his followers and those of Abraham, went`east into the plain of Jordan, towards Sodom, while his uncle dwelt in Canaan. Having been taken captive by some marauding chiefs, Lot was delivered by Abraham from their hands. Having received two angels into his house in Sodom, an attack was made upon it by night, by the inhabitants, who were struck blind, and the impending destruction of the city was announced to Lot. He escaped from the devoted spot, with his family; but his wife, looking back at the scene of devastation, "became a pillar of salt," which Josephus, and Benjamin of Tudela, declare existed in their times, and, according to some late travellers, was to be seen not long ago. text is, by some, understood merely to signify, that she was rendered a statue, that is, motionless, by being incrusted with salt. Lot afterwards became the father of Moab and Ammon, by his two daughters.

The

LOT. Man often finds it extremely difficult to choose between two measures, things, persons, &c. In such cases, he often allows himself to be determined by some outward impulse. This is, in part, the reason why men appeal to lot. The predominant motive, however, in very many cases, is a superstitious belief of the direct interference of the Divinity in determining the result. Hence we find the lot most frequently resorted to in ages and nations little advanced in civilization, and less guided by reason than by belief in supernatural influences; and hence, too, the religious ceremonies with which the appeal to lot is often accompanied in such a state of society. (See Divination.)_ It would be endless to enumerate the different modes of determination by lot, and the various cases in which men have resorted to this mode of resolving doubts. The Hebrews used to draw lots before undertaking any important enterprise; also in criminal trials, to determine the question of guilt or innocence; and at the election of officers. Thus the apostle Matthew was chosen by lot. For this purpose, dice or small staves were generally taken. The holy lot was the Urim and Thummim. The Greeks made use of dice, with signs, letters or words inscribed. These were drawn out of a vessel, and interpreted by priests, or the dice were thrown as in games. Such dice were found

in many temples, and one at Præneste was famous on that account. The northern nations-Russians, Germans,Swedes,&c.-all had their ways of prying into the future by lot. The Moravian Brethren have re-introduced the appeal to lot; they use it in the case of marriages and appointments, in their community, though it must be observed that they are not determined solely by it.

LOT has received, in America, the peculiar meaning of a portion of land, as a house-lot. In the first settlement of the country, a certain portion or share of land was allotted to each inhabitant of a town; this was called his lot. Hence, in a more general sense, the same word was applied to any piece of land. (See Americanism.) LOT-AND-GARONNE; a department of France. (See Department.)

LOTH; a German weight, the half of an ounce, or the 32d part of a pound avoirdupois. The lead used by navigators and mechanics is also called Loth in German. LOTICHIUS, Peter (called Secundus, to distinguish him from his uncle), born at Saalmünster, in Hanau, 1528, studied philosophy, the ancient languages, rhetoric and poetry under Melissus, Camerarius and Melanchthon; served in the forces of the Smalcaldic league; travelled in France and Italy, as the tutor to some rich young men; during this time, studied medicine at the most famous universities of both countries, and afterwards received a doctorate at Padua. He died very young, while professor of medicine at Heidelberg, 1560, as it is said, in consequence of a love potion, which was given him in Bologna. His Latin poetry, particularly his elegies, give him a place among the first modern Latin poets. There are editions of his Poemata, by P. Burmann (Amsterdam, 1754, 2 vols., 4to.), and by Kretschmar (Dresden, 1773).

LOTION, in medicine and pharmacy, is a wash for beautifying the skin, by clearing it of the deformities occasioned by a preternatural secretion. Almost all the lotions advertised for sale, contain much deleterious matter, and therefore ought never to be had recourse to.

LOTTERY (from lot); a scheme for the distribution of prizes by chance. Lotteries, like every other species of gambling, no doubt have a pernicious influence upon the character of those concerned in them. Though this influence is not so direct, and the immediate consequences are not so disastrous, as those of some other species of gambling, which call into exercise the violent passions, and stake the gambler's 8

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whole fortune upon a single chance or exertion of skill,-still, as this kind can be carried on secretly, and the temptations are thrown in the way of both sexes, all ages, and all descriptions of persons, it spreads more widely in a community, and may thus silently infect the sober, economical and industrious habits of a people more extensively and deeply, than those species of gambling which are attended with greater turbulence, and a train of other vices. Lotteries are of different kinds: I. Numerical lottery, or lotto (lotto di Genova); invented by the Genoese. At the elections of the counsellors, the names of the candidates were cast into a vase, and then into a wheel-of-fortune, when wagers were laid upon the event of the elections; the state finally undertook the superintendence of the bank. It is said that Benedetto Gentile, a counsellor, first introduced this lotto in 1620; and, because the name Gentile, by chance, had never been drawn, the popular belief prevailed, that the devil had carried him off, together with his name, to punish him for this unlucky invention. Numbers were afterwards substituted instead of the names of eligible noblemen, and hence the lotto assumed its present form. The numbers from 1 to 90 are used; from these, on the day of drawing, five numbers are always drawn. Out of the 90 numbers, each adventurer chooses for himself such and as many numbers as he likes, and specifies with what sum and upon what kind of chance he will back each selected number; whereupon he receives a printed ticket. In this lottery, there are four kinds of chances: 1. An estrado, so called, which requires only one number among the five that are drawn, and in which the successful adventurers received 14 times the stake. By this the lotto gains 16 per cent., because there are 17 blanks to one prize. 2. The wager, in which a man lays a wager, as it were, with the lotto, that one of the selected numbers will have the first, second, third, fourth or fifth place in the order of drawing. Should this event happen in the drawing, the bettor obtains 67 times the sum deposited. By this the lotto gains about 25 per cent. 3. The third is an ambo, in which, of the numbers drawn, there are two which the adventurer has pitched upon. He receives from the lotto 240 times the stake. In this case, the lotto gains 37 per cent., there being 399 blanks to one prize. 4. The last is a terno, by which the lotto gains 54 per cent., there being 11,347 blanks to one prize. It requires the ad