of falling into mannerism. Millin speaks of a model, of the name of Deschamps, who did duty in this way upwards of 40 years in the academy at Paris, and comments on the facility with which this person's form and features might be recognised, in every variety of subject or of expression, in the paintings of the students of that period. In sculpture a model implies a figure made of wax or terra cotta, or any other malleable substance, which the artist moulds to guide him in fashioning his work, as the painter first makes a sketch, or the architect a design. When a model of any existing object is to be taken, the original is first to be greased, in order to prevent the plaster from sticking to it, and then to be placed on a smooth table, previously greased, or covered with a cloth, to guard against the same accident; then surround the original with a frame or ridge of glazier's putty, at such a distance as will admit of the plaster resting upon the table, on every side of the subject, for about an inch, or as much as may be thought sufficient to give the proper degree of strength to the mould. An adequate quantity of plaster is then to be poured as uniformly as possible over the whole substance, until it is every where covered to such a thickness as to give a proper substance to the mould, which may vary in proportion to the size. The whole must then be allowed to continue in this way till the plaster shall have attained its firmness; when, the frame being removed, the mould may be inverted, and the subject taken from it; and when the plaster is thoroughly dry, it should be well seasoned. MODENA; a sovereign duchy of Italy, lying in a fruitful plain of Lombardy, watered by the Panaro, and bordering on Tuscany, Lucca, Bologna, Mantua and Parma. By an act of the congress of Vienna, Reggio, Mirandola, Correggio (birth-place of the celebrated painter), Carpoli and Rivoli, together with Massa and Carrara, and the former Imperial Fiefs, are united with the duchy of Modena proper to constitute one government; su perficial extent of the whole, 2000 square miles; population, 375,000. The territory is fertile and well cultivated, the climate, in general, temperate and healthy, and the principal productions corn, rice, fruits, wine, oil, silk, honey, iron, marble, &c. The income of the state is about 1,500,000 florins; the armed force 2080 men. The ruling house is of the Austrian line of the house of Este (see Este); the government is absolute, and the administration is conducted by one minister and two secreta

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ries; the Austrian civil code is in force. The present ducal house is descended from Cæsar of Este, a cousin (by a morganatic marriage) of the last duke of the former line of Este, which became extinct in 1598. The pope Clement VIII then took possession of Ferrara, which had previously formed a part of the Modenese territories, as a reverted fief of the papal. see. In 1653, Correggio was added to the duchy by grant of the emperor of Germany, Mirandola, in 1710, and Novellara, in 1737. Hercules III (died in 1803) married the heiress of the duchy of Massa-Carrara, and left an only daughter, who was married to Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, brother of Leopold II. In 1796, the French took possession of the country, and it was included in the Cisalpine republic, and afterwards in the kingdom of Italy. The present duke Francis IV, the son of the arch-duke Ferdinand, is prince of Hungary and Bohemia, and arch-duke of Austria. He was born in 1779, and, in 1812, married a daughter of the king of Sardinia. In 1814, he entered into possession of the estates of his grandfather, by virtue of a reversionary investment conferred on his father by the emperor, and his claims were confirmed by the congress of Vienna. He assumed the name of Este, and thus became the founder of the Austrian line of Este. His mother also entered upon the government of the duchy of Massa-Carrara, which she inherited from her mother, and to which the congress annexed the fiefs in the Lunigiana: on her death, in 1829, these passed to her son. The house of Modena-Este also holds the rich fideicommissa(see Fideicommissum) of the house of Obizzi, in Treviso. The present duke has a son, born in 1819, and two brothers. In consequence of the arbitrary character of the duke's government, an insurrection was organized, and the citizens of Modena, Reggio, Massa-Carrara and other places took arms, with the purpose of extorting from their rulers a more liberal form of government, in February, 1831. duke was obliged to flee; but in March the Austrian troops entered Modena, at the request of the duke, and restored the authority of the government.

The

MODENA (Mutina); capital of the duchy of the same name, situated in a fertile plain, on the canal of Modena, which unites the Secchia and the Panaro, 23 leagues from Florence, 36 from Milan; lat. 44° 38′ N.; lon. 10° 54′ E. It is the see of a bishop, and contains an old cathedral, at the foot of the tower of which hangs the bucket

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which was the subject of war between the Bolognese and Modenese, and of a mock heroic poem, by Tassoni, entitled La Secchia Rapita (the Rape of the Bucket), with a large number of churches. The ducal palace has a fine collection of pictures, and a good library of 80,000 volumes. There are also a university and other institutions, literary and charitable. The fortifications are inconsiderable; the population about 25,000. Natives, Sigonius, Muratori, Tassoni, Fallopius.

MODERN; that which belongs to recent times. The term modern history is used in different senses. The Germans often date the end of modern history with the French revolution, and eall the rest the most recent history. In the history of art, literature, customs, &c., modern is frequently used in contradistinction to ancient or classical. (q. v.) "Modern civilization," says A. W. Schlegel," arose from the blending together of the elements of Northern origin and the fragments of antiquity." (See Romantic.) In science, modern is also used in contradistinction to ancient; thus we speak of modern philosophy. MODILLION; an ornament resembling a bracket, in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite cornices. In Grecian architecture, however, the Ionic order is without modillions in the cornice, as are also the Roman examples of the same order, with the exception of the temple of Concord, at Rome, which has both modillions and dentils.

MODON (Mothone); a strong city and port of the Morea, on the Mediterranean; fat. 36° 51′ N.; lon. 21° 40′ E. It is entirely surrounded by the sea, and connected with the main land by a wooden bridge. The port is unsafe, but important on account of its road and its proximity to the gulf of Coron. The city is small and badly built; the streets narrow and dirty. The Greeks became masters of it in the war of Grecian independence, and, in 1825, Miaulis burnt a Turkish fleet in the road. Ibrahim Pacha took possession of Modon soon after his arrival in the Morea, but was compelled by the French to evacuate it in 1828. Previously to the war, the inhabitants amounted to about 7000. (See Morea.) In 1829, they did not exceed 500. MODULATION, in music, is, in its most extensive meaning, the diversified and proper change of tones in conducting the melody, or the progression of tones in general, and the sequences of concords. In its narrower sense, modulation signifies that succession of tones by which a musical passage proceeds from one key into

another. In quite short pieces, also in long compositions, in which the composition remains for some time in the principal tone before it passes to another, good modulation consists only in continuing for some time melody and harmony in the assumed tone, with proper changes and variety, and at last concluding in that tone. For this it is requisite that, at the very beginning, the concord should become distinctly perceptible by the sound of its essential tones, the octave, fifth and third; and further, that the melody, as well as harmony, should be carried through the tones of the assumed scale, and that no tones foreign to it should be heard, either in the melody or in the harmony. A variety of concords, nevertheless, is necessary, that the ear may enjoy the necessary variety. The composer ought not, after the fashion of some contracted harmonists, to dwell always on two or three concords, or repeat them in transpositions, much less to return and conclude in the principal tone before the piece or the first strain is finished. The rule to let only those tones be heard which belong to the assumed scale is to be understood thus,-that a tone foreign to the scale ought to be used merely in passing, and to be left again immediately; thus, for instance, in the scale C sharp, one could certainly go through G sharp into A flat, and through F sharp to the dominant, and from this back again to the principal tone, without violating, by these two tones, foreign to the fundamental tone, C sharp, the effect of this scale, or destroying it. It is only necessary to avoid tones totally foreign to the scale of C sharp; as, for instance, C sharp or D sharp. The second kind of modulation, or that which is so called, in a more restricted sense, requires more knowledge of harmony, and is subject to greater difficulty. It consists in the art of giving to longer pieces the necessary variety, by more frequent change of tones, and requires a knowledge of the relation among the various keys, and of the tones connecting them. As it is indispensable, in longer pieces, to carry melody and harmony through several keys, and to return at last to the fundamental, it is necessary, in respect to such modulation, duly to consider the character of the composition, and, in general, whether the modulation has merely in view a pleasing variety, or whether it is intended to serve as the support of a grand and bold expression. Considerations of this kind give to the composer the rules for particular cases, and show where he may

depart widely from the principal tone, and where he may remain near it; where he may thus depart suddenly, and perhaps with some harshness, and where his departures ought to be slow and gradual; because such departures are the most important means of musical expression. In pieces of a mild and quiet character, it is not permitted to modulate so often as in those which have to express violent and great passions. Where every thing relating to expression is considered, modulation also must be so determined by the expression that each single idea in the melody shall appear in the tone which is most proper for it. Tender and plaintive melodies ought only to dwell on the flat tones, while the lighter sharp tones, which must be touched in the modulation, on account of the connexion, ought to be left immediately afterwards. It is one of the most difficult parts of the art to remain steadily without fault in a modulation. It is therefore to be regretted that those who write on the theory of the art, dwell so little on this important subject, and believe themselves to have done enough, if they show how the composer may gracefully leave the principal tone, pass through the circle of all the twenty-four tones, and return at last to the first tone. Piccini had the best views of modulation. "Modulating," he says, "is to pursue a certain path. The ear will follow you; nay, it wishes to be led by you, yet upon condition that, after you have led it to a certain point, it shall find something to reward it for its journey, and to occupy it for some time. If you do not consider its claims, it suffers you to go on, at last, without regard, and every endeavor to attract it again is but lost labor." To conduct a melody according to a given modulation; never to deviate from it, except for good reason; and in the right time to return to it in the proper way, and without harshness; to make use of changes in the modulation only as means of expression, and, perhaps, for the necessary variety, such are the real difficulties of the art; while to leave immediately a key which has hardly been perceived, to ramble about without reason or object; to leap about because the composer does not know how to sustain himself; in one word, to modulate in order to modulate, is to miss the true aim of the art, and to affect a richness of invention in order to hide the want of it.

MODULE; an architectural measure; the lower diameter of a column being divided into two parts, one is a module; and each module is divided into thirty minutes;

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thus neither is a determinate, but a proportionate, measure. The term is also sometimes used with reference to the different sizes of medals.

MELLENDORF, Richard Joachim Henry, count von, a Prussian general, born in 1724, was educated at Brandenburg, and, in 1740, admitted among the pages of Frederic II, whom he accompanied in the first Silesian war, and was at the battles of Molwitz and Chotusitz. His behavior procured him promotion, and, in 1746, he obtained a company in the guards. He served at the siege of Prague, in 1757, and at the battle of Rossbach and that of Leuthen; for his conduct on which last occasion, he was rewarded with the order of merit. He was made a colonel in 1761, afterwards lieutenant-general,and, in 1783, governor of Berlin. In the reign of Frederic William II, he was appointed general of infantry, and commanded the Prussian troops employed in 1793, in the disgraceful dismemberment of Poland, on which occasion Möllendorf did every thing in his power to alleviate the misfortunes of the Poles. On his return home, he was created a field-marshal, and, soon after, made governor of South Prussia. He opposed the war with France which followed; but he succeeded the duke of Brunswick in the command of the Prussian army on the Rhine, in 1794, when he gained the victory of Kaiserslautern. He was one of the principal advisers of the treaty of Basle, in 1797, after which he was made grandmarshal. Not being able to prevent, by his advice, hostilities with France, in 1806, though far advanced in years, he accepted a command, and, joining the army of the duke of Brunswick, was present at Jena and Auerstadt, where he was wounded. He retired to Berlin, and, subsequently, to Havelberg, where, according to an odd Prussian usage, he held a prebend in the ecclesiastical chapter. He died there, Jan. 28, 1816.

MERIS; a lake of Egypt. According to Herodotus, with whose account Diodorus and Mela agree, it was, in his time, 3600 stadia, or 450 miles, in circumference, and about 300 feet deep. He states it to have been entirely the product of human industry. Modern travellers describe it as at present about thirty or forty miles long and six broad, and assert it to be a natural basin. therefore, which Herodotus attributes to king Moris, must have been the canals which connected the lake with the Nile, and the mounds, dams and sluices which rendered it subservient to the purposes of

The works,

irrigation. (See the works of Pococke, Denon, Belzoni, &c., on Egypt.)

MESIA; a country lying north of Thrace and Macedonia, and south of the Danube, corresponding to the modern Servia and Bulgaria. It was at a remote period inhabited by Scythians, with whom the Geta were afterwards united. The country was conquered by the Roman emperors. The barbarians early conquered this region, and it remained in the hands of Sclavonians and Bulgarians. (See Servia, and Bulgaria.)

MESOGOTHS. (See Goths.)

MOGADOR, OF MAGADORE (called by the natives Suera, or Suerrah); a seaport of Morocco, 100 miles west-south-west of Morocco; lon. 9° 20′ W.; lat. 31° 30′ N.; population, according to Jackson, 10,000; to Robbins, 30,000. It was founded in 1760, by Sidi Mohammed, who spared no pains to make it the principal seat of commerce in the empire; and most of the commerce between Europe and the empire of Morocco is carried on through Mogador. It is built in a low, flat desert of accumulating sand, which separates it from the cultivated country. Supplies are brought from gardens from four to twelve miles distant. The town has a beautiful appearance from the sea, the houses being all of stone, and white; but the streets, though regular and straight, are narrow and dirty, and the houses present a mass of dead wall. The houses of the foreign merchants are spacious. The roofs are flat, and the terraces serve as a walk in the evening. It consists of two parts, one of which may be called the citadel, containing the custom-house, treasury, residence of the alcaide, and the houses of the foreign merchants. The Jews, who are not foreign merchants, reside in the outer town. The harbor is about two miles in circuit; but, as the water, at ebb-tide, is only ten or twelve feet deep, large ships must anchor one and a half mile distant from the battery. The exports consist of almonds, gums, bees-wax, goat-skins, olive oil, ostrich feathers, pomegranate-peels, and dates. (See Morocco.)

MOGREBBINS ; Arabs of the western part of Egypt. Many of them are found at Cairo, and are distinguished for their industry.

MOGUL. (See Mongols.)

MOHAMMED, the founder of a religion which has spread over a great part of the East, and has been productive of much good by the abolition of the worship of idols, was a scion of the Arabic line of Koreish, and the family of Hashem, cele

brated in their country as the princes of the holy city of Mecca, and guardians of the kaaba. The date of his birth is placed with most probability in A. D. 569. Mecca was his native place. His grandfather, Abdul Motalleb, a rich and noble citizen, had thirteen sons. One of them, Abdallah, married Amira, and died while his son Mohammed, or Mahomet, was still a child. As he left little property, Mohammed was educated first by his grandfather, and, after his death, by his oldest uncle, Abu Taleb. This uncle, a merchant, destined Mohammed for the same employment, and was accompanied by him on a commercial journey to Syria. On this occasion, he visited a Nestorian monastery, where he was especially distinguished by one of the monks, and received impressions which perhaps contributed to give the tone to his subsequent character. The Mohammedan writers are very prolix in their descriptions of the wonderful qualities of mind and body for which their prophet was eminent from his youth; he shared, however, the general ignorance of his countrymen. His uncle had recommended him as agent to a rich widow, named Khadijah, and he acquitted himself so much to her satisfaction, that she married him, and thus placed him in easy circumstances. She was fifteen years older than he, but, from gratitude or prudence, he lived with her in happy and faithful wedlock, and, till her death, restrained the sensual appetites which he afterwards indulged. He was still a merchant, and made a second journey to Syria, where he again had interviews with the Nestorian monks. He seems to have had, from his youth, a propensity to religious contemplation, for he was every year accustomed, in the month Ramadan, to retire to a cave near Mecca, and dwell there in solitude. At what time the idea of a new religion came into his mind, whence, in the midst of an idolatrous people, he derived the conviction of the unity of God, and to what degree he blended the ambition to assume the prophetic character with the struggle for personal aggrandizement, are questions to which only conjectural answers can be given. That an untaught Arab should conceive elevated views of the state of man in his age, and found on them comprehensive projects, is not credible: in all probability, his first plans were limited to his countrymen. That he was honest in his zeal to abolish idolatry, and disseminate a purer doctrine, although he sought to obtain this object by deception, may be easily believed, if

we remember the many examples of a similar inconsistency in other legislators and religious reformers. Mohammed began his pretended mission A. D. 609, in the fortieth year of his age. He first converted his wife Khadijah, to whom he communicated the particulars of an interview with the angel Gabriel, by whom he was declared an apostle of God. Through her instrumentality, her uncle or cousin Waraka was gained, who is said to have been a Christian, and well acquainted with the Old and New Testaments. These were followed by Mohammed's servant, Zeid, to whom he gave his freedom, and by his young nephew, the fiery Ali. Of great importance was the accession of Abubeker, a man of estimable character, who stood in high respect, and persuaded ten of the most considerable citizens of Mecca to follow his example. They were all instructed by Mohammed in the doctrines of the Islam, as the new religion was styled, which were promulgated as the gradual revelations of the divine will, through the angel Gabriel, and were collected in the Koran. (q. v.) Three years passed in the quiet dissemination of his doctrines: in the fourth, Mohammed invited his relatives of the family of Hashem to an entertainment, openly announced to them his prophetic mission, and asked which of them would undertake the office of his vizier. All were silent, till the youthful Ali declared his readiness to do so, and, at the same time, his resolution to inflict vengeance on all who should dare to oppose his master. In vain did Abu Taleb, the father of Ali, dissuade them from the undertaking. But, although he remained himself unconverted, he did much to promote the new doctrines, by protecting Mohammed against his enemies, and affording him refuge in times of danger. On several occasions Mohammed was at tacked by the adherents of idolatry with open force, and compelled to change his residence; but he often had the satisfaction of converting his bitterest enemies. In the tenth year of his prophetic office, he suffered a severe loss in the death of Abu Taleb and his faithful Khadijah. Deprived of their assistance, he was compelled to retire, for a time, to the city of Tayef. On the other hand, he was readily received by the pilgrims who visited the kaaba, and gained numerous adherents among the families in the neighborhood. At this time occurred Mohammed's famous nocturnal journey to heaven on the beast Alborak, under Gabriel's guidance, respecting which the

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Koran contains some obscure intimations. In the twelfth year, the Islam was also spread among the inhabitants of Medina (Yathreb), several of whom swore fidelity to the prophet, and proffered their assistance. Mohammed now adopted the resolution of encountering his enemies with force. Only the more exasperated at this, they formed a conspiracy to murder him: warned of the imminent danger, he left Mecca, accompanied by Abubeker alone, and concealed himself in a cave not far distant. Here he spent three days undiscovered, after which he arrived safely at Medina, but not without danger. This event, from which the Mohammedans commence their era, is known under the name of the Hegira (q. v.), which signifies flight. In Medina, Mohammed met with the most honorable reception: thither he was followed by many of his adherents. Mohammed now assumed the sacerdotal and regal dignity, married Ayesha, daughter of Abubeker, and, as the number of the faithful continued to increase, declared his resolution to propagate his doctrines with the sword. The hopes of booty added new fervor to the religious zeal of his partisans. Their first great military exploit was the spoiling of a rich caravan, led by Abu Sophian, the chief of the Koreishites, with a strong guard. Mohammed surprised them, with an inferior force, in the valley of Beder, and inflicted on them a total defeat. He took a rich booty, and a number of prisoners. Other successful enterprises followed; but, in the third year of the Hegira, Abu Sophian, with 3000 soldiers, attacked Mohammed with 950 on mount Ohud, not far from Medina. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the Moslems were utterly beaten, and the wounded prophet hardly saved his life. This misfortune naturally shook the authority of him whose pretended mission from God should have secured him the victory. But by attributing the fault to the sins of the Moslems, by promising the slain a paradise provided with all sensual enjoyments, and inculcating an unconditional predestination, he succeeded in restoring his tottering credit. need had he of it in the following year, 625, when Abu Sophian appeared before Medina with 10,000 men. Mohammed prudently limited himself to the defensive; but the enemy raising the siege, after twenty days, on account of internal discord, Mohammed, under the pretence of a divine command, led his party against the Jewish race of Koreidha, who had made common cause with the enemy. After

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