-a work of distinguished research and impartiality. The Roman Catholic doctrine of the Moyos (verbum) makes it a person, and not a mere name, and maintains that the Word is called God, not by catachresis, but in the strict and rigorous meaning of the term; that the most ancient fathers of the church always taught the divinity of the Word, and that they derived the idea from the Holy Scriptures alone, and not from the Platonic philosophy, as many have asserted. For a view of the Catholic doctrine, we must refer our readers to the Catholic Dictionnaire de Théologie (Toulouse, 1817), article Verbe, and to the works particularly devoted to this subject. Some of the opinions of modern theologians on the meaning of the logos are as follows:-It is necessary, some say, in order to understand the true meaning of logos, to begin with the examination of copia, which was previously used. (See the book of Proverbs, viii, 1 et seq., and the book of Wisdom, vii, 22 et seq.) The poetical author of the Proverbs does not imagine a person separate from God, but only an interior power of God, because, in his time, there could be no idea of a being proceeding from God, the Jews having borrowed this notion at a later period from the Oriental doctrine of emanations. The author of the book of Sirach (xxiv, 3) first uses λóyos Tu Oc, as equivalent to copía, to signify the almighty power of God. The Word being an act of wisdom, gave rise to the symbol. John speaks of the logos in the beginning of his gospel only, and afterwards uses the expression võμа To Oes. From his representation, the following positions have been deduced :the logos was (a.) from the beginning of all things (comp. Proverbs, viii, 22; Sirach, xxiv, 9); (b.) from the beginning with God (comp. Sir. i, 1; Wisd. ix, 4, 9); (c.) through it the world was created (Prov. Sol. viii, 31; Sir. xxiv, 9); (d.) in the person of Christ, the logos was manifested as a man to the world (Wisd. Sol. x, 16; ii, 14; Sir. xxiv, 12). St. John, therefore, say those who thus interpret him, had the same idea of the logos as the apocryphal writers; for the circumstance that the latter ascribe to the logos the creation of all things, while St. John leaves this point undecided in his ev dox v, does not amount to a contradiction. Others, particularly the earlier commentators, understand by logos, the Deity himself, that is, the second person of the deity (according to St. John viii, 58). But those who adhere to the former opinion maintain that this is in contradiction to John xiv, 28; xii, 49–50; v, 19—

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20; and that he understood by logos, only a power of God, which was communicated to Jesus, on account of which he could claim divine attributes, and yet call the Father, as the source of this power, greater than himself. Others, as Herder, Paulus, Eckerman, understand by logos, the Word of God (1), which, in the Old Testament, as the expression of the will of God, is the symbol of his creative power (Gen. i, et seq.). The later Jews also represented the divine omnipotence by the word of God. But it is maintained, on the other hand, from the manner in which John speaks of the logos, that he did not understand by it merely the divine omnipotence. A similar account is given of the creation by the Word, in the religion of Zoroaster. According to Richter (Das Christenthum und die ältesten Religionen des Orients), the logos corresponds with the Indian Om, the Persian Hanover, the Egyptian Kneph. Others, following the fathers of the church, particularly Eusebius, understand by logos an independent substance, external from God, like the vas of Plato. But this, again, it is said, involves an error, because Plato means by vis, only a power of God. Still others, as Mosheim, Schlegel, Jerusalem, declare, with Irenæus, the logos of St. John to be identical with the logos of the Gnostics (q. v.); but it is objected, that John did not conceive of a plurality, like that in the doctrine of æons. Lange considered logos equivalent to the sophia of the Old Testament, and that to the logos of Philo, and as a distinct person from God; but, say the others, copia is not something distinct from God. Paulus, in his Commentary, also identifies the logos of Philo with that of St. John. But it is said, on the other hand, that John cannot be supposed to have been acquainted with Philo's notion, as it was not an opinion commonly known at the time, and that the view of the apocryphal writers is more similar to his; moreover, that if St. John meant any thing more than an original, eternal power in God, his ecos

would imply dualism. Others have attempted grammatical explanations. Dőderlein and Storr translated the word Xoyos by doctrina, the abstract being put for the concrete, doctrine for teacher, as in Gen. xlii, 38; 2 Sam. xxii, 23; Luke iv, 36. According to others, ó óyos means

Xeyouevos (the promised); but history makes no mention of Christians who still expected a Messiah. The ancient philosophers often distinguish two logoses, an interior in God or man, which merely thinks

(Móyos ¿võiaberos), and an exterior or uttering (λόγος προφορικός).*

LOGTHING; the legislative portion of the Norwegian storthing, or diet. As soon as the king or his representative has opened the session, the storthing choose one quarter of their members to compose the logthing. The remaining three-fourths constitute the odelsthing, or representatives of the landed property. These bodies conduct their deliberations separately, and each chooses its own president and secretary. Every law is first proposed in the odelsthing, either by its own members or by the government through a counsellor of state. If the proposition is then accepted, it is then sent to the logthing, who either accept or reject it, at pleasure, in the latter case giving their reasons. These are considered by the odelsthing, who either abandon the proposed measure, or send it again, either with or without alteration, to the logthing. If the proposition is twice sent down by the odelsthing to the other house, and is, by them, twice rejected, the whole storthing then assemble together, and the question is decided by a vote of two thirds of all the members. At least three days must elapse between each of the considerations. When a measure, proposed by the odelsthing, has received the assent of the other division of the assembly, or of the whole storthing, a deputation from both branches of the storthing is sent to the king, or, in his absence, to the viceroy or regency, to obtain the royal sanction for the measure. The sessions of both houses are public, and their deliberations are daily made known to the public by means of the press. The members of the logthing form, together with the highest judicial authorities, the supreme court of the kingdom, which decides on charges, preferred by the odelsthing, against the members of the council of state, or of the members of the superior courts, for violation of their official duties, or members of the storthing, for any offences which they may have committed in that capacity. In this tribunal, the logthing presides. Against a sentence pronounced by this supreme tribunal, no pardon avails,

* Göthe, in his celebrated Faustus, makes use of this passage of St. John to plunge Faustus deeper into his despondency. He endeavors to translate Moyos by word, mind, power: nothing will do: at last he chooses deed, and is satisfied. Though this agrees well enough with the character of the hero, the poet ought to have considered

that if Faustus understood Greek, he must have

known that Aoyos never means deed or any mani

festation of reason by action.

except in cases where the punishment is death. (See Storthing.)

The

LOGWOOD. This important article of commerce is the wood of the hæmatoxylon Campechianum, a small straggling tree, belonging to the family leguminosa, which grows wild, in moist places, along the western shores of the gulf of Mexico. From its abundance in some parts of the bay of Campeachy, it is sometimes called Campeachy-wood. The leaves are pinnate; the flowers small, yellowish, and disposed in axillary racemes at the extremity of the usually spinous branches. wood is red, tinged with orange and black, so heavy as to sink in water, and susceptible of receiving a good polish; but it is chiefly employed in dyeing. The black and purple colors are very much used, but they are not so permanent as some obtained from other substances. Though cultvated to some extent in Jamaica, the logwood of commerce is chiefly obtained from Honduras, where the cutting of it forms an extensive, but unhealthy, branch of busi

ness.

From Honduras it is exported in great quantities to the U. States.

a

LOHENSTEIN, Daniel Caspar von, German poet of the Silesian school, was born 1635, in Silesia, and died 1683, at Breslau. He wrote a great deal, particularly tragedies and comedies; and we mention him merely as a model of bad taste. His bombast is pushed to the furthest extravagance, and, as an instance of aberration from taste, is not uninteresting in the history of the human mind. His dramatic extravaganzas are collected in his Trauer- und Lustgedichte (Breslau, 1680, 1689; Leipsic, 1733).

LOIR-AND-CHER; a department of France, so called from the two rivers which cross it; the former in the south part, and the other in the north. (See Department.)

LOIRE (Lager), the largest river of France, rises in the Cevennes, in the department of the Ardèche, and empties into the Atlantic ocean below Nantes in Bretagne. Its length is about 520 miles. It is shallow in many places, but is navigable for large merchant ships to Nantes, for smaller ones to Briaire, and for boats to Boanne. The levee upon the Loire is France. It extends from Angers to Orone of the most stupendous works in leans, and was constructed to confine the river within its banks, and to exclude the formerly to have been a morass 100 miles waters from a tract of country which is said in length, and 30 or 40 in breadth. Its base is about 40 feet wide. and its eleva

tion nearly 25 from the adjoining level; and its upper surface, which is paved with large stones, is just capacious enough to admit three carriages abreast. By the new division of France, since the revolution, three departments have received their name from the river-the Loire, and the Upper, and Lower Loire. In 1815, the river became of historical importance. The French army, which, after the battle of Waterloo, had fallen back to the walls of Paris, having, by the terms of capitulation made by the provisionary government, retired without further hostilities, under the command of Davoust, beyond the Loire, it was called the army of the Loire.

LOIRE, LOIRE UPPER, and LOIRE LowER; three French departments. (See Department.)

LOIRET; a French department. (See Department.)

LOIZEROLLES, M. de, was a barrister at the time of the revolution, and was arrested, with his father, in 1793, on suspicion, and conveyed with him to the prison of St. Lazare. On the 7th of Thermidor, two days before the fall of Robespierre, the messengers of the revolutionary tribunal arrived at the prison with a list of the prisoners who were to be tried, and called for Loizerolles, the son. The young man was asleep, but the father, with a heroic wish to sacrifice his life for the preservation of his son, allowed himself to be taken to the Conciergerie, and appeared before the judges. The clerk, perceiving the error in point of age, substituted the name of Francis for John, the word father for son, and the age of 61 for 22, and thus the father was led to the scaffold, though no charge or crime was alleged against him! M. Loizerolles, junior, has since celebrated this act of paternal affection in a poem, in three cantos, with historical notes (18mo., 1813).

LOK. (See Northern Mythology.) LOKMAN is a name that figures in the proverbs and traditions of the Arabians. The period at which he lived is very differently stated, so that it is even doubtful if there were not two of the same name at different periods. According to tradition, Lokman was a scion from the stock of Ad, and was once sent, with a caravan, from Æthiopia to Mecca, to pray for rain in a time of great drought. But God's anger destroyed the whole family of Ad, except Lokman, the only righteous one; whereupon the Creator of the world gave him his choice, to live as long as the dung of seven gazelles, which lay in an inaccessi

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ble hole in a mountain, should last, or for a period equal to the lives of seven successive vultures. Lokman chose the last, and lived for an almost incalculable length of time. There is also in the Koran an account of a Lokman, surnamed the wise; sometimes, also, called Abu-Anam, or the father of the Anams. This one, whether identical with the former or not, is not for us to determine, lived in David's time, and is represented as similar in many respects to the Phrygian Æsop; and the Arabians have a great variety of fables by him, which, however, are formed upon the model of those of Æsop, and of which the whole style and appearance are such, that they cannot be referred to so early a date as the first century of the Hegira. This person had, also, a life of remarkable duration (according to some 300, according to others 1000 years), which coincidence in the accounts of them affords good grounds for the conjecture, that the Lokman of the Koran, and the one whom tradition ascribes to the race of Ad, are one and the same person, whose history, in the course of ages, has been thus fancifully adorned. The fables of Lokman were, for the first time, made known to Europe through the press, by Erpenius, in 1615. They were first published in Arabic, with a Latin translation, were afterwards appended to an Arabic grammar, published by Erpenius, at Leyden, and have since gone through many editions, none of which, however, are free from errors Among the Oriental nations, these fables, owing to their laconic brevity and tasteless dress, are held in little respect, and, on the whole, are not worthy of the reputation which they have, for a long time, sustained with us. In 1799, during the occupation of Egypt by the French, Marcel superintended an edition of Fables de Lokman, at Cairo, which was republished in Paris in 1803; but the best is that prepared by Caussin, in 1818, for the use of the pupils at the college royale. The editor of Galland's translation of the Homayoun-Nameh, or Fables of Bidpai, is mistaken in ascribing these Indian fables to Lokman as well as Bidpai. The most complete manuscript of the fables of Lokman is in the library of the Vatican, in Persian.

LOLLARDS. (See Beguines, Fraternities, and Oldcastle.)

LOLLI, Antonio; a celebrated violinist, born 1728, or, according to some, 1740, at Bergamo, in the Venetian territory. In 1762-73, he was in the service of the duke of Würtemberg. He afterwards

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went to Russia, and his performance pleased the empress Catharine II so much, that she presented him with a bow, on which she had herself written the words, "This bow, made by Catharine, with her own hands, is intended for the unequalled Lolli." In 1775, he travelled in England, France and Spain. In Madrid, besides other perquisites, he received 2000 reals from the director of the theatre for each concert. In 1789, he returned to Italy, and died at Naples, in 1794. Lolli endeavored to unite the excellences of the schools of Nardini and Ferrari. He had acquired an astonishing facility on his instrument. He was called the musical rope-dancer. None of his predecessors had attained such perfection on the finger-board; but, at the same time, he lost himself in wild and irregular phantasies, in which he often neglected all time, so that the most praçtised player could not accompany him.

LOLME, DE. (See De Lolme.) LOMBARD-HOUSE, LOMBARD (mons pietatis, mont de piété); a public institution, at which every person, but especially the poor, may obtain money for a short time, at a moderate rate of interest, on depositing sufficient pledges (pawns), and are thus saved from the necessity of having recourse to usurers. The chief difference between Lombards and pawnhouses is, that the former are established by public authority, for the relief of the poor, while the latter are established by private individuals, for their own profit. After a given time, the pawns, if not redeemed, are sold by public auction, and the surplus, after deducting interest and costs, is given to the former owner; or, if he cannot be found, retained for him one year. If he does not then appear, the sum is given to charitable institutions. The Lombard gives a certificate, stating the time of deposit, the sum received, the name of the pawner, the article pawned, the page of the book in which it is entered. The bearer of this certificate may redeem the articles within the time fixed, unless the owner has apprized the Lombard that it was lost, &c. The origin of these establishments has been, with much probability, referred, by Dorotheus Ascionius (i. e. Matthew Zimmermann, who died in 1639, and who was superintendent in Meissen*), to the time of pope Pius II or Paul II (1464-1471), Barnabas Interamnensis, however, a Minorite friar, established the first Lombardhouse in Perugia, in the States of the Church, before 1464, or in that year, * A superintendent, in the north of Germany, is a superior Protestant minister.

though it did not receive pope Paul II's confirmation before 1467. A lawyer in Perugia, Fortunatus de Copolis, rendered much assistance in the execution of the plan. Another Lombard was soon after erected in Orvieto. In 1472, Sixtus IV confirmed one, established at Viterbo, in 1469, by a Minorite, Franciscus de Viterbo, and, in 1479, another at Savona, his native place. Lombards were thus gradually established in almost all Italian cities during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. (See Beckmann's History of Inventions, vol. iii, 3d part.) The first Lombard in Germany was established in Nuremberg, in 1498, with an imperial privilege. In the Netherlands, France and England, whither the rich Lombard merchants emigrated, on account of the struggles of the Guelphs and Gibelines, they lent their money for interest; whence such establishments were, and still are, called Lombards. In some large cities of Europe, the Lombards are very extensive, but do not always attain the object for which they were originally intended, as the following statement will prove. The following statistical tables, relative to the mont de piété in Paris, framed by the prefect of the Seine, are interesting, as they show that there is a numerous class of persons who can with difficulty find the means of existence; and that half of the inhabitants of the capital are obliged to have recourse to the pawn-broker, at some time of the year, though they are forced to pay usurious interest. In the year 1826, there were 1,200,104 pledges of different articles, upon which the sum of 24,521,157 francs was lent. The number of pledges redeemed in the same year amounted to only 1,124,221, and the sum to 21,569,437 francs; so that 75,883 remained at the mont de piété; and there was in its hands the sum of 2,951,720 francs. As it is the principle of the mont de piété not to lend more than about a quarter of the value upon articles pledged, though the law for its formation, dated in 1777, directs that the borrower shall receive two-thirds of the value of his pledge, we may estimate the value of the 75,883 unredeemed pledges, upon which nearly 3,000,000 of francs were lent, at 12,000,000. Supposing the sale of these articles to be effected, and all the reductions of excise, registry, &c., made, there would be returned to the proprietors of them the half of these 12,000,000. It would result, that 6,000,000, at least, are thus annually levied upon the least affluent class of society-that which approaches the nearest to the description

of persons for whom the depôts for mendicity were created. Independently of these 6,000,000, inevitably lost to the unfortunate borrowers, we must add the interest of 12 per cent. per annum, taken upon the 24,521,137 francs lent by the mont de piété; that is to say, 2,942,536 francs, adding nearly 3,000,000, which, with the 6,000,000 already spoken of, constitute a total of 9,000,000. 9,000,000, divided among 437,500 inhabitants, half of the 875,000 composing the entire population of the capital, give 20 francs, 20 centimes, or, omitting the fraction, 20 francs for each inhabitant. In a family composed of four persons, the average will then be nearly 80 francs-an immense sum for a family which can with difficulty procure daily necessaries!

LOMBARD SCHOOL. (See Italian Art, in the article Italy, and Painting, History of.) LOMBARD STREET, a well-known spot in the gigantic metropolis of the British empire, is situated in the city, and received its name from having been the residence of the Lombards, the money-lenders of former times, whose usurious transactions caused their expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. It is now chiefly occupied by bankers, and is a place of much importance in the London commercial world.

LOMBARDS, LONGOBARDI, or LANGOBARDI. Some derive the name from the long bards or spears, by which this nation is said to have been distinguished from the other northern tribes; others from the long strips of land (berde) which they inhabited, on both sides of the Elbe, from Luneburg to Magdeburg. They are generally considered a German tribe (but Paulus Diaconus calls them Scandinavians), of the tribe of the Hermiones or Suevi, which dwelt below the Istævones. Their most ancient seats were on the east side of the Elbe, in the eastern parts of the principality of Luneburg, and in the Altmark, or the Bardengau, so called, which, most probably, takes its name from them. Here Tiberius found them, on his expedition to the Elbe, and fought a battle with them. Strabo narrates that Tiberius drove them beyond the Elbe; but Velleius Paterculus, who himself accompanied the expedition, makes no mention of it. The Lombards afterwards appear in the Marcomannic league, under Maroboduus, with whose despotism being dissatisfied, they concluded a league with the Cherusci. They appear, at this time, to have left their settlements on the Elbe, and to have approached nearer the Che

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rusci. The latter tribe, having been weakened by a series of misfortunes, the Lombards improved the opportunity to spread themselves farther, and humiliate the Cherusci, took possession of all their settlements north of the Hartz mountains, and became the most powerful of the nations there. According to the accounts of Ptolemy, they now spread between the Weser and the Rhine, in the territories of the former Angrivarii, Tubantes, Marsi and Cherusci. They maintained themselves in these territories till the new Frankish confederacy, formed of the ancient Cheruscan league, enforced against them the ancient rights of the Cherusci, and, in all probability, drove the Lombards back to their ancient seats on the Elbe. For 200 years, we hear nothing more of them, till, at the close of the fifth century, they appeared again on the north side of the Danube, and, after having obtained a part of Pannonia from the Greek emperor Justinian II, aided by the Avari, put an end, under their king Alboin, in 566, to the empire of the Gepidæ, in Transylvania. Meeting with little resistance, they conquered, two years alter, under the same king, in connexion with 20,000 emigrant Saxons, all Upper Italy (which was now called the kingdom of the Lombards, subsequently Lombardy (sec Lombardy), together with a great part of Middle Italy. Their king, Liutprand, an able sovereign, from 713 to 726, extended the Lombard dominion in Middle Italy. But, having become too formidable to the popes, the latter solicited the aid of the Frankish kings, and Charlemagne took the Lombard king Desiderius prisoner, in 774, after a six months' siege, in Pavia, and destroyed the Lombard kingdom. (See Henry Leo's History of Italy, vol. 1 (from A. D. 568 to 1125), in the Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten, by Heeren and Uckert (Hamburg, 1829).—A political history of Italy, and of the social condition of the people under the dominion of the Lombards, by C. Troya, of Naples, has been announced.

LOMBARDY, in the sixth century, when the Lombards had conquered a great part of Italy, comprehended the whole of Upper Italy. At a later period, the Austrian provinces in Italy (the duchies of Milan and Mantua) have been called Austrian Lombardy. These, with other countries, were formed by Bonaparte into the Cisalpine, then into the Italian republic, and, lastly, in 1805, into the kingdom of Italy, and the name of Lombardy ceased to be used. By the peace of Paris, in 1814,,