the general arming of the citizens. Un der Edward III, it was provided that no man should be compelled to go out of the kingdom at any rate, nor out of his shire, but in cases of urgent necessity, nor should provide soldiers, unless by consent of parliament. We first find lord-lieutenants of counties, whose duty was to keep the counties in military order, mentioned as known officers in the fifth year of Philip and Mary. When Charles I had, during his northern expeditions, issued commissions of lieutenancy, and exerted certain military powers, which, having been long exercised, were thought, by one party, to belong to the crown, it became a question, in the long parliament, how far the power over the militia did inherently reside in the king, which, after long agitation, ended by the two houses denying the crown this prerogative, and taking into their own hands the entire power of the militia. After the restoration, when the military tenures were abolished, the sole right of the crown to govern and command the militia was recognised. The most characteristic features of the English and Scottish militia at present are, that a number of persons in each county is drawn by lot, for five years (liable to be prolonged by the circumstance of the militia being called out and embodied), and officered by the lord-lieutenants and other principal land-owners, under a commission of the crown. They are not compellable to leave their county, unless in case of invasion or actual rebellion within the realm, nor, in any case, to march out of the kingdom. When drawn out, they are subject to military law. In all cases of actual invasion, or imminent danger thereof, and in all cases of rebellion or insurrection, the king may embody the militia, and direct them to be led into any part of the kingdom, having communicated the occasion to parliament, if sitting, or, if not sitting, having declared it in council, and notified it by proclamation. In Tyrol, a general arming against the French was effected in 1799. When, in 1808, the arch-duke Charles was placed at the head of military affairs, a general Landwehr was organized throughout the Austrian provinces. In 1809, these troops fought well, and amounted, at that time, to 300,000 men; after 1811, only to 71,500; but, after 1813, the Landwehr was again placed on its old footing, and, quite lately, parts of it have been called out to increase the army, which stands ready to overrun Italy. In Hungary, the common law obliges every nobleman to serve himself and to bring his vassals into the field, if called

upon. This levée is called an "insurrection of the nobility." In 1809, this insurrection consisted of 17,000 horse and 21,000 foot. In 1807, a general militia was organized in Russia, which, in 1812, was of considerable service against the French. Prussia has carried the Landwehr to greater perfection than any other country: in that country, the militia forms the main body of the army. In 1813, every male person under forty-eight years of age was obliged to serve against the French in the militia. The national militia, at that time, included both infantry and cavalry. The lower commissioned officers were elected by the militia-men, and the higher by the estates of each circle. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Prussia had 150,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry of the militia under arms. After the peace of 1815, the Landwehr was established on its present footing. Every Prussian, with the single exception of mediatized princes, is obliged to serve for three years in the standing army, between his seventeenth and twenty-third year. Part of this time, however, he is generally on furlough. If a person equips himself and undergoes an examination, by which he proves that he has received a certain education, he has to serve one year only in the standing army. After this time, every Prussian belongs, until his thirtieth year, to the first class of the Landwehr, attends frequent drills on Sunday afternoons, and has to serve for three weeks every year, when the Landwehr is called together for great manœuvres. Every man is in the Landwehr what he was in the standing army-foot-soldier, horseman or artillerist. Government hires horses for the time of manœuvring, and, as they are well fed and ridden by experienced men, the owners generally like to let out their horses for the occasion. Every Prussian, from his thirtieth year until his fortieth, belongs to the second class of militia. This is not called together in time of peace, and, in war, only in time of the greatest emergency, and then only for local or provincial service. Thus Prussia is enabled to assemble a very large army in proportion to its population, whether to the injury of the nation is a question not to be discussed here. In regard to the militia of the U. States. it is provided, by act of congress of 1792, that all able-bodied, white male citizens, between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, with certain exceptions (officers of government, members of congress, mariners in service, &c. &c.) shall be enrolled in

the militia. The persons so enrolled are to provide themselves with the common arms of infantry, and with ball cartridges, &c., at their own expense. These are arranged into brigades, regiments, companies, &c., as the legislatures of the several states may direct. Each battalion is to have at least one company of grenadiers, light-infantry or riflemen, and each division at least one company of artillery and one troop of horse. Proper ordnance and field artillery is to be provided by the government of the U. States. The cavalry and artillery troops are to consist of volunteers from the militia at large, not exceeding one company to each regiment, and are to equip themselves, with the exception of the ordnance above mentioned. Whenever the U. States shall be invaded, or in imminent danger of invasion from any foreign nation or Indian tribe, the president is authorized to call forth such number of the militia of the state or states most convenient to the scene of action as he may judge necessary. In case of any insurrection in any state against the state government, he may, on application from the legislature of such state (or from the executive, when the legislature cannot be convened) call forth such number of the militia of any other state or states as may be applied for, or as he may judge necessary to suppress the insurrection. So, whenever the laws of the U. States are opposed in any state by combinations too powerful to be suppressed by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or by the powers vested in the marshals, the president may call forth the militia of such state, or any other state, to suppress them, and may continue the militia in service for thirty days after the commencement of the next session of congress. During the last war with Great Britain, it was provided, by an act which expired with the wer, that, when the militia were in pay of the U. States, and acting in conjunction with the regular troops of the U. States, they were to be governed by the rules and articles of war in like manner with the regular forces, and subject to be tried by courts martial, these courts martial, however, to be composed of militia officers. It was also provided that the militia, when called into the service of the U. States, might, if the president of the U. States was of opinion that the public interest required it, be compelled to serve for a term not exceeding six months in any year. The sum of $200,000 is appropriated annually for the purpose of providing arms and equipments for the whole body

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of the militia of the U. States, which are divided among the states and territories respectively, in proportion to the number of effective militia in each. In all the states, the governor is commander-in-chief of the militia, with more or fewer restrictions. In Massachusetts, he has power to exercise, assemble and govern them, and to employ them to resist invasion or detriment to the commonwealth, but cannot march them out of the limits of the state without their free consent, or the consent of the general court, except that he may transport them by land or water out of the state, for the defence of any part of the state to which access cannot otherwise conveniently be had. By the constitutions of many of the states, especially those which are of recent origin, the governor is not commander-in-chief of the militia, when they are in the actual service of the U. States. This is to prevent collision between the general government and that of the separate states, such as took place between the government of Massachusetts and that of the U. States, during the last war with Great Britain. Such a provision exists in the constitutions of Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Maine. In some of the states, the governor is not to command personally, except when so advised by the legislature. This is the case in Vermont, Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, Louisiana. In North Carolina, the governor cannot embody the militia of his own authority for the public safety, except in the recess of the general assembly. In some of the states, the organization of the militia is not provided for by the constitution, but left to be settled by the legislature: this is the case in Pennsylvania, Louisiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama. In most of the states, however, particular provision is made for the election or appointment of officers of different degrees. In Massachusetts, the captains and subalterns are elected by the written votes of their companies, the field officers of regiments by the written votes of the captains and subalterns of their respective regiments, the brigadiers by the field-officers of their respective brigades. The governor commissions these officers. The major-generals are appointed by the senate and house of representatives, each having a negative on the other, and are commissioned by the governor. If the electors of brigadiers, field-officers and captains neglect to choose, the governor, with the advice of the council, fills vacan

cies. In New Hampshire, the general and field-officers of the militia are nominated by the governor and council. The captains and subalterns are nominated by the field-officers, and, if approved by the governor, appointed by him. The commanding officers of regiments appoint their adjutants and quarter-masters, the brigadiers their brigade-majors, the majorgenerals their aids, the captains and subalterns their non-commissioned officers. In Vermont, the militia companies elect their captains and other officers, and the captains and subalterns nominate and recommend the field-officers, who appoint their staff-officers. The superior officers are appointed by the governor and council. The provisions of the New York constitution are much the same as those of Massachusetts. In New Jersey, the captains and inferior officers are chosen by the companies, but field and general officers by the council and assembly. In Maryland, the officers of the militia are appointed by the governor. In North Carolina, the senate and house of commons appoint the generals and field-officers of the militia. In Georgia, the general officers of the militia are to be elected by the general assembly, and commissioned by the governor. The other officers are elected as the legislature may direct. In Kentucky, the commanding officers of the respective regiments appoint the regimental staff, brigadier-generals their brig. age-majors, major-generals their aids, and captains the non-commissioned officers of companies. A majority of the field-officers and captains in each regiment nominate the commissioned officers in each company, who are commissioned by the governor. In Tennessee, field-officers, captains, subalterns and non-commissioned officers are elected by the citizens subject to military duty in the districts of these officers, brigadier-generals by the field-officers of their respective brigades, majorgenerals by the field-officers of their respective divisions. The governor appoints the adjutant-general, the major-generals appoint their aids, the brigadier-generals their brigade-majors, and the commanding officers of regiments their adjutants and quarter-masters. In Ohio, captains and subalterns are elected by their companies, majors by the captains and subalterns of the battalion, colonels by the majors, captains and subalterns of the regiment, brigadier-generals by the commissioned officers of their respective brigades; majorgenerals and quarter-master-generals are appointed by the joint ballot of both

houses of the legislature. The governor appoints the adjutant-generals; the majorgenerals appoint their aids and other division officers, the brigadiers their majors, commanders of regiments their adjutants, quarter-masters, and other regimental staff-officers, and the captains and subalterns the non-commissioned officers and musicians. In Indiana, the elections are much as in Tennessee, except that brigadiers are chosen by all the commissioned officers of their respective brigades, and major-generals by the commissioned officers of their respective divisions. In Missouri, the constitution provides that field-officers and company-officers shall be elected by the persons subject to military duty within their respective commands; brigadier-generals by the fieldofficers of their respective brigades, and major-generals by the brigadiers and fieldofficers of their respective divisions, until otherwise directed by law. General and field-officers appoint their staff-officers. The governor appoints an adjutant-general, and all other militia officers whose appointments are not otherwise provided for. In Maine, the system is much as in the last-mentioned state, except that the major-generals are elected by the senate and house of representatives. The constitutions of some of the states exempt from militia duty, with more or less qualification, persons conscientiously scrupulous about bearing arins. This is the case with those of Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Indiana, Missouri, Illinois, Alabama. (See Military Colonies, Military Dictricts, Army, and Army, Standing.)

MILK; a secretion peculiar to the females of the class mammalia, or those animals which feed their young from their teats, and which takes place, in some of them, only during and after the time of gestation. It differs as procured from different animals, but its general properties are the same in all. When this fluid is allowed to stand for some time, it undergoes spontaneous changes, and is resolved into its component parts: a thick yellowish substance collects on the surface, which is cream, and the milk beneath becomes thinner than before, and is of a pale bluish color. When cream is kept for some days without being disturbed, it gradually becomes thicker, till at last it acquires the consistence of cheese; and hence one method of making creamcheese, merely by putting cream into a linen bag, and leaving it there till it becomes solid. When cream is shaken, it

is resolved into its component parts. The process by which this is accomplished is called churning, by which two substances are obtained, butter and butter-milk. In the making of butter, cream is allowed to stand for some time, during which an acid is generated. It is then put into a churn and shaken, by which the butter is gradually separated. What is left (the buttermilk) has a sour taste, but by no means so much so as that of the cream before the churning. Butter is sometimes also made from cream which has not become sour, but the process is much more tedious, the acid formed in the other case favoring its separation. Butter is merely an animal oil, solid at a natural heat, but held in solution in milk, by some of the other substances. As thus procured, it is not pure, but may in a great measure be freed from its impurities, by washing it with cold water; and though apt to become rancid, yet, when mixed with salt, may be kept any length of time. Milk from which butter has been taken, undergoes spontaneous changes. It becomes much sourer, and congeals into a mass of the consistence of jelly. When heated, the fermentation of this coagulum is hastened, and by the addition of certain substances, it very soon takes place; thus acids and spirit of wine curdle it, which is owing to the albumen it contains being acted on by them, in the same way as blood or white of eggs. By far the most powerful coagulator, however, is the substance called rennet, which is the decoction of the stomach of animals, as a calf. When the milk is previously heated, and rennet added, it is almost instantly coagulated. If after this it is cut, a thinnish fluid oozes from it, and if it he put into a bag and squeezed, the whole of this is forced out, and a whitish, tough matter is left; the former is whey, the latter curd. On this depends the process of making cheese, which varies in richness, according to the mode followed in preparing it. When milk is heated gradually, and merely to the temperature at which it curdles, and if the curd be freed gently from the whey, it retains almost the whole of the cream, which adds to its richness and flavor. But when it is curdled quickly, and the whey is speedily removed by cutting the curd, a great deal, or nearly the whole of the cream is carried off, and the cheese is poor, and has not the rich flavor of that made in the other way. The latter is the method generally followed in Scotland, where both cheese and butter are got from milk; for the whey procured in the process yields a considerable quantity of the

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latter; and hence the comparative poorness of Scottish cheese. In making cheese, having obtained the curd, and freed it from its whey, the remaining part of the process is merely to subject it to pressure, by which the whole of the whey is forced out, the color being communicated by the addition of coloring matter: that generally used is annotta, which is mixed with the milk. Whey has a pleasant taste, and contains a considerable quantity of a sweetish substance, called sugar of milk ; hence it is frequently used as drink, and from its nutritious quality, it is administered to delicate people; hence the use of asses' milk, which contains a large quantity of it. It is from its containing this saccharine matter, that it is sometimes, as in some of the northern counties of Scotland, made to undergo fermentation, by which a very weak spirituous fluid is obtained. By evaporation it affords a minute quantity of saline matter and a considerable portion of sugar of milk. When whey or milk is exposed to a temperature between 60° and 80° it undergoes a spontaneous change, attended by the production of an acid, which was originally examined by Scheele, and has been termed lactic acid. MILKY WAY. (See Galaxy.)

The

MILL; originally, a machine, adapted to divide, crush, or pulverize any substance; but more entensively applied, in modern times, to almost all machinery consisting of wheel-work, whether intended to change the form, or merely the position of the substance operated upon. term as thus used is very indefinite, both in regard to the moving power and the application of the power or the process. Mills therefore take different names, from the process, as stamping-mills, sawmills, fulling-mills, grinding-mills, &c.; from the moving power, as wind-mills, water-mills, hand-mills, steam-mills, &c.; or from the material operated upon, as cotton-mills, flour-mills, sugar-mills, oilmills, &c. This great variety in the nature and uses of mills renders it impossible to give descriptions of them under one head. The general principles of the machinery and the moving powers will be found described under the heads Mechanics, Hydraulics, Machinery, Pneumatics, Steam, Wheels, &c., and their particular applications to different materials will be treated of under the appropriate heads. One of the earliest and most universal applications of machinery of this kind is to the comminution of grain. Among the rudest nations we find this done by pounding it between two stones; but with

the first advances of art, a simple handmill is constructed, composed of an immovable nether-stone (Gr. pvn) and an upper-stone (bos or ovos), put in motion by the hand. These machines were used by the Hebrews and Greeks, and commonly moved by slaves or criminals. Asses were afterwards employed. According to the Greek mythology Pilumnus, Myles, or Mylantes, invented the mill. Watermills (mola aquaria) seem to have been used by the Romans. Wind mills (q. v.) were invented in the time of Augustus. Among the moderns the common mill for grinding grain is constructed with two circular stones placed horizontally. Buhrstone is the best material of which millstones are made, but sienite and granite are frequently used for Indian corn and rye. The lower stone is fixed, while the upper one revolves with considerable velocity, and is supported by an axis passing through the lower stone, the distance between the two being capable of adjustment according to the fineness which it is intended to produce in the meal or flour. When the diameter is five feet, the stone may make about 90 revolutions in a minute without the flour becoming too much heated. The corn or grain is shaken out of a hopper by means of projections from the revolving axis, which give to its lower part, or feeder, a vibrating motion. The lower stone is slightly convex, and the upper one somewhat more concave, so that the corn, which enters at the middle of the stone, passes outward for a short distance before it begins to be ground. After being reduced to powder, it is discharged at the circumference, its escape being favored by the centrifugal force, and by the convexity of the lower stone. The surface of the stones is cut into grooves, in order to make them act more readily and effectually on the corn; and these grooves are cut obliquely, that they may assist the escape of the meal by throwing it outward. The operation of bolting, by which the flour is separated from the bran, or coarser particles, is performed by a cylindrical sieve placed in an inclined position and turned by machinery. The fineness of flour is said to be greatest when the bran has not been too much subdivided, so that it may be more readily separated by bolting. This takes place when the grinding has been performed more by the action of the particles upon each other, than by the grit of the stone. For this sort of grinding, the buhrstone is peculiarly suited. The patent improvements of Evans consist of a series

of machines calculated to save hand-labor, by performing every movement of the grain and meal from one part of the mill to another, or from one machine to another, by the force of the water.-For information on this subject, the reader may consult Evans's Millwright's Guide (6th edit. Philadelphia, 1829), or Buchanan's Mill Work (London, 1823, 2 vols.).

MILLEDGEVILLE; a post-town, capital of Baldwin county, and metropolis of the state of Georgia, situated on the west bank of the Oconee, in lat. 33° 6′ N.; lon. 83° 20′ W. It is 87 miles south-west of Augusta. The public buildings are a statehouse, a state arsenal, an academy, a court-house, a jail, four printing-offices, and houses of worship for Methodists, Baptists and Presbyterians. A branch of the state bank, and one of the Darien bank, are located here. Four weekly papers are published. The river here is 552 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and is navigable for boats of 70 tons. Above the town are rapids. About 8000 bags of cotton are annually deposited here, for the Darien and Savannah markets. The population of Milledgeville has not increased for several years. In 1824, it was estimated at 2000. The village of Macon, 34 miles southwest of Milledgeville, has become the principal scene of business for this part of the state, and the political metropolis has ceased to be regarded with interest by new settlers. (See Sherwood's Gazetteer of Georgia.)

MILLENNIUM (thousand years); generally taken for the thousand years in which some Christian sects expected, and some still expect, the Messiah to found a kingdom on earth, full of splendor and happiness. This opinion originated from the expectations of the Jews, in regard to a Messiah. Excited and nourished by their prophets, endeared to them by their sufferings during and after the Babylonish captivity, and by the national pride, which their misery served to increase, those expectations took a more and more decidedly sensual turn in the time of Jesus, particularly under the oppression of the Roman government. (See Messiah.) Jesus declared himself to be the expected Messiah, announcing his new religion as the fulfilment of the promises given by the prophets of the Old Testament. Notwithstanding his express declaration, that it was not his intention to establish a worldly kingdom, but a spiritual kingdom of truth and virtue, and notwithstanding the doctrine of his apostles, that a lasting happiness could only be expected in a