pointments which he held in the Holy Office. He lived in disgrace till 1805, when his reputation caused him to be recalled to Madrid to investigate some dark points of history. He was then appointed a canon of the cathedral of Toledo in 1806, and, in 1807, after he had proved himself of noble descent, he was made a knight of the order of don Carlos. In the next year, when Napoleon undertook to regulate the affairs of Spain, Llorente repaired to Bayonne, at Murat's request, and took part in organizing the new institutions of his country, which, however, could not take permanent root, as the clergy saw in them the destruction of their authority. When Joseph Bonaparte entered Madrid, in 1809, he charged Llorente to take possession of the papers of the inquisition, and of the buildings and archives which were under the superintendence of the general commandant of the place. In 1812, Llorente published a historical memoir on the inquisition, with the view of freeing the Spanish nation from the charge of having ever been attached to this institution, and to the autos da fé. Llorente was almoner of king Joseph, who made him, successively, counsellor of state, commander of the royal order of Spain, commissionergeneral of the Cruzada. He followed Joseph to Paris after the disastrous campaign of the French in Russia, and in 1815 had the intention of accompanying him to the U. States; but, remaining to take leave of his family, he was induced to give up the plan. In 1817, he published his history of the inquisition in Spain, in French-a work which was soon translated into most European languages, and which has become a historical source. An abridgment has been published by Leonard Gallois. When the old authorities were restored, he was obliged to flee. Banished from his country, deprived of his property and of his fine library, Llorente lived in France, after the downfall of the French party in Spain, in indigence. But the hatred of the illiberal party arose, at last, to such a height, that the university of Paris forbade him from teaching the Spanish language in the boarding-schools, which had been his only means of support. The rage of his enemies was raised to the highest pitch by the publication of his Portraits politiques des Papes, and the old man was ordered, in the middle of the winter of 1822, to leave Paris in three days, and France in the shortest possible time. He was not allowed to rest one day, and died exhausted, a victim to the persecutions of the nineteenth centu

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ry, a few days after his arrival in Madrid (Feb. 5, 1823). During his residence in France, he published his Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire de la Révolution d'Espagne, avec des Pièces justificatives, under the name of R. Nelleto (an anagram of Llorente), in three volumes (Paris, 1815)— a work of value, as illustrative of the events of 1808, in Spain. He also wrote a biographical account of himself (Noticia biografica de Don J. A. Llorente, Paris, 1818), and Aforismos Politicos. The Discursos sobre una Constitucion religiosa was actually written by an American, but arranged and edited by Llorente. He also superintended an edition of Euvres complètes de Barthélemy de las Casas (Paris, 1822).

LLOYD, Henry, a military officer and eminent writer on tactics, born in Wales, in 1729, was the son of a clergyman, who instructed him in the mathematics and classical literature. At the age of 17 he went abroad, and he was present at the battle of Fontenoy. He afterwards travelled in Germany; and having resided some years in Austria, he was appointed aid-de-camp to marshal Lascy. He was gradually promoted, till, in 1760, he was intrusted with the command of a large detachment of cavalry and infantry, destined to observe the movements of the Prussians. Lloyd executed this service with great success; but soon after resigned his commission in disgust. He was then employed by the king of Prussia; and during two campaigns, he acted as aid-de-camp to prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. After the peace of Hubertsburg, he travelled, till the occurrence of hostilities between Russia and Turkey, when he offered his services to Catharine II, who made him a major-general. He distinguished himself in 1774, at the siege of Silistria; and, subsequently, he had the command of 30,000 men, in the war with Sweden. At length, he left Russia, and travelled in Italy, Spain and Portugal. He visited general Eliott, at Gibraltar, whence he proceeded to England. Haying made a survey of the coasts of the country, he drew up a Memoir on the Invasion and Defence of Great Britain, which was published in 1798. He retired, at length, to Huy, in the Netherlands, where he died, June 19, 1783. Besides the memoir, he was the author of an Introduction to the History of the War in Germany, between the King of Prussia and the Empress-Queen (London, 1781, 2 vols., 4to.); and a Treatise on the Composition of different Armies, ancient

necessary to the state, the only question is, What is the most advantageous method of making them? A chief distinction among loans is this that the government promises either the repayment of the capital at a particular time, until which it pays interest, or reserves the liberty to retain the capital, according to its own pleasure, only paying interest regularly. The first kind is liable to occasion trouble to the state, because the payment may often fall at an inconvenient time. The payment of large sums, too, at a particular period, has this disadvantage, that the nation, when the payment is to be made, becomes destitute of ready money. Therefore large loans are usually contracted in such a way that the payment is made, successively, at many periods, or remains entirely indefinite. The last kind of loans requires that the credit of the state should be undoubted, and also that large capitals should have been accumulated in the hands of many rich people, who find their greatest advantage in disposing of them in loans. Where there is a well founded system of credit, statesmen think it most advantageous to secure only the regular payment of the stipulated interest, but to leave the payment of the capital at the pleasure of the state. This is called the funding system, as far as fixed funds are assigned for the perpetual payment of the interest. These perpetual annuities, as they are called, had their origin in England, but have since been imitated in Holland, France, Russia, Austria, and many other states. In order to provide for the redeeming of the capital, a sinking fund (French, amortissement) is established, together with the fund appropriated to the payment of the annuities. This is procured by means of a tax large enough to pay the annuity as long as it lasts, and to redeem, annually, a part of the capital debt. This sinking fund is increased every year, if the annuities, annually redeemed are added to it. (See Sinking Fund.) According to this method, the state cannot be said, properly, to borrow capital; it sells annuities, and fixes, at the sale, the rate at which they may be redeemed. They are commonly estimated at so much per cent. The government says I offer you an annuity of three, four, five, &c. per cent., redeemable at my pleasure. How much will you give me for it? According to the market rate of interest, and the degree of credit which the state enjoys, the capitalists offer 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, &c., per cent. The sinking fund aims to discharge the debt, gradually, by redeem

ing, annually, part of the annuities, at the market price. If the latter exceeds the price for which it had sold its annuities, įt will be obliged to redeem them with loss; but if it is less, it can redeem them with gain. Another kind of loan is, when the capitalists pay 100 per cent. at a fixed rate of interest, the government reserving the right to pay the capital at any convenient time. Suppose that the state, when it wishes to borrow, is obliged to pay eight per cent., and that these stocks, in the course of three years, should rise in the market 100 per cent. above par; the state would easily find capitalists, who would lend at the rate of four per cent. annually, and with this it could redeem the eight per cent. stocks. If, therefore, the state has reason to expect that the price of the stocks will rise, its best plan is to receive a fixed capital sum at such a rate of interest as it is obliged to give. But if it fears that the interests or the prices of the stocks will fall, it is for its advantage to procure the necessary money by the sale of stocks at the market price, because it may hope to redeem them at a reduced rate. Sometimes premiums, or the chances of a lottery, are employed to stimulate reluctant capitalists, and sometimes even force. If a government must have recourse to other means than those arising from the annuity or interest offered, it is a certain sign that it enjoys but a feeble credit, or that there is a want of capital. How fertile modern history is in loans of every kind, and into what an unhappy situation many states have fallen, by reason of them, is well known. In Austria, the proprietors of the stocks have been forced, several times, to advance further sums, to avoid losing what they had already lent. (See National Debt.)

LOANDA, or LOANDO, or ST. PAUL DE LOANDA; a city of Angola, in a province of the same name, capital of the Portuguese possessions in this part of Africa; longitude 13° 22′ E.; latitude 8° 55′ S.: population, stated by Clarke at 5,000; by Hassel at 18,000. It is pleasantly situated on the declivity of a hill, near the seacoast, and the streets are wide and regular. It covers a large extent of ground, but is neither walled nor fortified. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains three convents. The port is safe and spacious; the country around pleasant and fertile, abounding in cattle, corn and fruits; provisions plentiful and cheap; but the water bad, and must be brought from a neighboring river, on an island opposite. The houses belonging to the Portuguese are built of

stone; the houses of the natives are more numerous, but mean. The Jesuits officiate as priests, and preside over the schools. LOANGO; a country of Western Africa, of limits somewhat vague. The country subject to the king of Loango extends from the Zaire or Congo, on the south, to cape St. Catharine, a coast of upwards of 400 miles; but Loango proper occupies only the middle part, excluding Mayomba on one side, and Malemba on the other. The climate is described as fine; rain of rare occurrence, and never violent, but dews abundant; the soil a red, stiff clay, and very fertile, but little cultivated; the grains are manioc, maize, and a species of pulse, called msangen; the sugar-cane grows to a great size; palm-trees are abundant; also potatoes and yams, and the finest fruits grow wild. Among the animals are tiger-cats, ounces, hyænas, hares, and antelopes. The country is thinly inhabited; the population is estimated by De Grandprẻ at 600,000. The inhabitants are very indolent, and live in the most simple manner. Their houses are formed of straw and junk, roofed with palm leaves. The government is despotic, and the dignity is transmitted only in the female line. Almost the only object for which Europeans resort to this coast is the trade in slaves. While Loango was in the height of its power, its port was almost the exclusive theatre of this trade. The trade has of late much diminished. (See Tuckey's Expedition to the Congo.) LOANGO; a city, and the capital of Loango, on a river which forms a bay at its mouth, about six miles from the Atlantic; longitude, according to captain Tuckey, 12° 30′ E.; latitude 4° 40′ N. It is about four miles in circuit, containing only about 600 enclosures, in each of which there is a number of cottages; and the inhabitants are computed at 15,000. The land in the vicinity is very fertile, and the water excellent. The entrance of the bay is attended with some danger. The town is called also Lovango, Loangiri, Banga, and Buali; by the natives, Borai, or Boori. LOBAU, George Mouton, count, lieutenant-general, and, in 1830, commander of the national guards of Paris, one of the pupils of the French revolution of 1789, and a distinguished actor in that of July, 1830, was born in 1770, and designed for commercial pursuits. On the invasion of France, in 1792, he entered the military service, and obtained his first promotion on the Rhine. Having served with distinction in Italy, where he was dangerously wounded, he was cre

ated, by the first consul, Bonaparte, general of brigade, and afterwards accompanied the emperor in all his campaigns, in the capacity of aid. In 1807, he was wounded at Friedland, and promoted to the rank of general of division. His brilliant services in Spain, in 1808, and in Germany, obtained him his title of count. (See Aspern.) After having served in the Russian campaign, he was made prisoner in Dresden, in 1813, but set at liberty after the abdication of Napoleon. He rejoined the emperor during the hundred days, was named peer of France, received the command of a division, and distinguished himself at Waterloo. On the second restoration of the Bourbons, count Lobau was banished from the kingdom (see Louis XVIII), and he resided in Belgium till 1818, when he was allowed to return to France. During the revolution of 1830, he took an active part on the popular side, and, when Lafayette resigned the command of the national guards, was appointed (December 26) commander of those of Paris.

The

LOBEIRA, Vasco, author of the celebrated romance of Amadis de Gaul, was born at Porta, in Portugal, in the fourteenth century. In 1386, he was knighted on the field of battle, at Aljubarrota, by king Joam I. He died at Elvas, where he possessed an estate, in 1403. original of his celebrated romance was preserved in the library of the duke of Aveiro, who suffered for the conspiracy against Joseph I; but whether still in existence or not, is doubtful. This romance has been claimed for France, it having been asserted that Lobeira was only a translator; but doctor Southey has succeeded in refuting that pretension. (See Amadis.)

LOBEL, Martin de (Latinized, Lobelius), was born at Lille, in 1538, studied medicine at Montpellier, travelled through Italy, Switzerland, Germany, became physician to the prince of Orange, and was, at a later period, invited to England, as botanist, by king James. He died in 1616, at Highgate, near London. His chief works are Stirpium adversaria nova, with engravings (London, 1570, folio; several times reprinted; the last time, Frankfort, 1651, folio); Plantarum seu Stirpium Historia cum Adversariorum Volumine, with engravings (Antwerp, 1576, folio; in Dutch, ibid, 1581); Icones Stirpium (Antwerp, 1581, 4to.; also London, 1605, 4to.). After him, a genus of plants has been called Lobelia. All the species are poisonous; some very much so.

LOBELIA; a genus of plants distinguished by the labiate corolla, and by

having the five stamens united in the form of a cylinder, as in the composite. About 150 species are known, which are herbaceous or frutescent, having alternate leaves, and flowers disposed in terminal racemes. The juice in all is milky, and more or less acrid and caustic. Among the species inhabiting the U. States, the most remarkable are the three following:-The L. syphilitica is found in moist places throughout the Middle and Western States. It grows to the height of three or four feet, and bears large and beautiful flowers, of a fine blue color. It was, formerly, a celebrated remedy with the aborigines, and, as such, has been brought into notice among medical practitioners; but its virtues have been overrated, and it is now rarely employed. It, however, possesses diuretic properties.-The large scarlet flowers of the L. cardinalis, or cardinal flower, are conspicuous in the low grounds, and along the banks of streams, throughout the U. States. The brilliancy of the flowers has rendered this plant a favorite in the European gardens, where it has been cultivated for more than two centuries.-The L. inflata, or Indian tobacco, is an upland plant, often growing even in cultivated grounds, from Canada to Carolina. The flowers are very small, blue, and are succeeded by inflated capsules. It possesses emetic properties, and is an acrid and dangerous plant. It was employed as a medicine by the Indians,and has, of late, acquired some celebrity from being used by a certain class of empirics. Ten other species of lobelia inhabit the U. States. LOBSTER (astacus). This well known crustaceous animal has already been cursorily mentioned under the head of Crawfish (q. v.), and it was there inadvertently stated, that the lobster, found on the American coast, was the A. gammarus, or, in other words, identical with the European species. It was so considered by most naturalists, until Mr. Say pointed out the differences between them. (See Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., i, 165.) He terms it A. marinus. Mr. Say observes that Seba, however, was aware that this species was distinct from the European, and figured it in his great work. They are exceedingly alike, though there are certain traits of difference, sufficient to authorize a separation. The habits of the American species are, as far as they have been observed, analogous to those of the gammarus. They are taken by means of pots or traps, made of strips or osiers, formed somewhat like a mouse-trap, baited with garbage, attached to a cord and buoy, and

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sunk by means of a weight. The European lobster having been more studied by naturalists, the following particulars respecting it have been obtained. Like the crabs, they change their crust annually. Previous to this process, they appear sick, languid and restless. They acquire the new shell in about three or four days, during which time, being perfectly defenceless, they become the prey, not only of fish, but also of such of their brethren as are not in the same condition. It is difficult to conceive how they are able to draw the muscles of their claws out of their hard covering. The fishermen say, that during the pining state of the animal, before casting its shell, the limb becomes contracted to such a degree as to be capable of being withdrawn through the joints and narrow passage near the body. Like all other crustaceous animals, they only increase in size whilst in a soft state. The circumstance of lobsters losing their claws on occasion of thunder-claps, or the sound of cannon, is well authenticated. The restoration of claws lost thus, or from their frequent combats with each other, in which the vanquished party generally leaves one of his limbs in his adversary's grasp, may be readily observed, as the new limb seldom, if ever, attains the size of the former. These animals are so sensible to the shock communicated to the fluid in which they live, by the firing of cannon, that it is said they wholly deserted New York bay, from this cause, during the war of independence. In the water, they are very rapid in their motions, and, when suddenly alarmed, can spring to a great distance. They attain their retreat in a rock with surprising dexterity, throwing themselves into a passage barely sufficient to permit their bodies to pass. They are extremely prolific: doctor Baster says that he counted 12,444 eggs under the tail of a female lobster, besides those that remained in the body unprotruded. The female deposits these eggs in the sand, where they are soon hatched.

LOCH; the Scotch for lake.

LOCH KATRINE, or CATHERINE; a small lake of Scotland, in the county of Perth, in the Grampian hills, celebrated for the picturesque beauties of its shores. It has become famous as the scene of the Lady of the Lake. Bordering on it are the Trosachs, rough and stupendous mountains, full of wildness and rude grandeur. The access to the lake is through a narrow pass, about half a mile in length, "the Trosachs' rugged jaws.".