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all orders of men; and that of counsels to such as related to Christians of a more sublime rank, who proposed to themselves great and glorious ends, and aspired to an intimate communion with the Supreme Being.

XII. This double doctrine suddenly produc

to us incontestable, that in the writings of the primitive fathers, there are several sublime sentiments, judicious thoughts, and many things hat are naturally adapted to form a religious temper, and to excite pious and virtuous affections; while it must be confessed on the other hand, that they abound still more with pre-ed a new set of men, who made profession of cepts of an excessive and unreasonable austerity, with stoical and academical dictates, vague and indeterminate notions, and what is yet worse, with decisions that are absolutely false, and in evident opposition to the precepts of Christ. Before the question mentioned above concerning the merit of the ancient fathers, as moralists, be decided, a previous question must be determined, namely, What is meant by a bad director in point of morals and, if by such a person be meant, one who has no determinate notion of the nature and limits of the duties incumbent upon Christians, no clear and distinct ideas of virtue and vice; who has not penetrated the spirit and genius of those sacred books, to which alone we must appeal in every dispute about Christian virtue, and who, in consequence thereof, fluctuates often in uncertainty, or falls into error in explaining the divine laws, though he may frequently administer sublime and pathetic instructions; if, by a bad guide in morals, such a person, as we have now delineated, be meant, then it must be confessed, that this title belongs indisputably to many of the fathers.

XI. The cause of morality, and indeed, of Christianity in general, suffered deeply by a capital error which was received in this century; an error admitted without any sinister views, but yet with great imprudence, and, which, through every period of the church, even until the present time, has produced other errors without number, and multiplied the evils under which the Gospel has so often groaned. Jesus Christ prescribed to all his disciples one and the same rule of life and manners. But certain Christian doctors, either through a desire of imitating the nations among whom they lived, or in consequence of a natural propensity to a life of austerity (which is a disease not uncommon in Syria, Egypt, and other Eastern provinces,) were induced to maintain, that Christ had established a double rule of sanctity and virtue, for two different orders of Christians. Of these rules one was ordinary, the other extraordinary; one of a lower dignity, the other more sublime; one for persons in the active scenes of life, the other for those who, in a sacred retreat, aspired to the glory of a celestial state. In consequence of this wild system, they divided into two parts all those moral doctrines and instructions which they had received, either by writing or tradition. One of these divisions they called precepts and the other counsels. They gave the name of precepts to those laws which were obligatory upon

in defence of the severe sentence he had pronounced against the fathers. This ingenious performance was printed at Amsterdam in 1720, under the title of Traite sur la Morale des Peres; and is highly worthy of the perusal of those who have a taste for this interesting branch of literature, though they will find in it some imputations cast upon the fathers, against which they may be easily defended.

uncommon degrees of sanctity and virtue, and declared their resolution of obeying all the counsels of Christ, that they might enjoy communion with God here; and also, that, after the dissolution of their mortal bodies, they might ascend to him with greater facility, and find nothing to retard their approach to the supreme centre of happiness and perfection. They looked upon themselves as prohibited from the use of things which it was lawful for other Christians to enjoy, such as wine, flesh, matrimony, and trade. They thought it their indispensable duty, to extenuate the body by watchings, abstinence, labour and hunger.They looked for felicity in solitary retreats, in desert places, where, by severe and assiduous efforts of sublime meditation, they raised the soul above all external objects and all sensual pleasures. Both men and women imposed upon themselves the most severe tasks, the most austere discipline; all which however the fruit of pious intention, was, in the issue, extremely detrimental to Christianity. These persons were called Ascetics, mudzini, 'Ezkixtoi and philosophers; nor were they only distinguished by their title from other Christians, but also by their garb. In this century, indeed, such as embraced this austere kind of life, submitted themselves to all these mortifications in private, without breaking asunder their social bonds, or withdrawing themselves from the concourse of men. But, in process of time, they retired into deserts; and after the example of the Essenes and Therapeutæ, they formed themselves into certain companies.

One

XIII. Nothing is more obvious than the reasons that gave rise to this austere sect. of the principal was, the ill judged ambition of the Christians to resemble the Greeks and Romans, many of whose sages and philosophers distinguished themselves from the generality by their maxims, by their habits, and, indeed, by the whole plan of life and manners which they had formed to themselves, and by which they acquired a high degree of esteem and authority. It is also well known, that, of all these philosophers, there were none whose sentiments and discipline were so well received by the ancient Christians as those of the Platonists and Pythagoreans, who prescribed in their lessons two rules of conduct; one for the sages, who aspired to the sublimest heights of virtue; and another for the people, involved in the cares and hurry of an active life. The law of moral conduct, which the Platonists prescribed to the philosophers, was as follows:

Athenagoras, Apologia pro Christian. cap. xxviii.

+ See Salinas. Comm. in Tertullianum de Pallio.

These famous sects made an important distinction between living according to nature, 2× ××т≈ quis, and living above nature, Zav UTTER QUOIV. The former was the rule prescribed to the vulgar; the latter, that which was to direct the conduct of the philosophers, who aimed at superior degrees of virtue. See Eneas Gazeus in Theophrast.

|| rites, that still, in many places, throw a veil over the beauty and simplicity of the Christian religion. Hence the celibacy of the priestly order, the rigour of unprofitable penances and mortifications, the innumerable swarms of monks, who, in the senseless pursuit of a visionary sort of perfection, refused their talents and labours to society. Hence also that distinction between the theoretical and mystical life, and many other fancies of a like nature, which we shall have occasion to mention in the course of this history.

XV. It is generally true, that delusions travel in a train, and that one mistake produces

"The soul of the wise man ought to be removed to the greatest possible distance from the contagious influence of the body; and, as the depressing weight of the body, the force of its appetites, and its connexions with a corrupt world, are in direct opposition to this sacred obligation, all sensual pleasures are to be carefully avoided; the body is to be supported, or rather extenuated, by a slender diet; solitude is to be sought as the true mansion of virtue, and contemplation to be employed as the means of raising the soul, as far as is possible, to a sublime freedom from all corporeal ties, and to a noble elevation above all terrestrial things.* The person who lives in this manner, shall en-many. The Christians who adopted this ausjoy, even in the present state, a certain degree of communion with the Deity; and, when the corporeal mass is dissolved, shall immediately ascend to the sublime regions of felicity and perfection, without passing through that state of purification and trial, which awaits the generality of mankind." It is easy to perceive, that this rigorous discipline was a natural consequence of the peculiar opinions which these philosophers, and some others who resembled them, entertained concerning the nature of the soul, the influence of matter, the operations of invisible beings, or demons, and the formation of the world; and, as these opinions were adopted by the more learned among the Christians, it was natural that they should embrace also the moral discipline which flowed from them.

tere system had certainly made a very false step, and done much injury to their excellent and most reasonable religion. But they did not stop here; another erroneous practice was adopted by them, which, though it was not so general as the other, was yet extremely perni cious, and proved a source of numberless evils to the Christian church. The Platonists and Pythagoreans held it as a maxim, that it was not only lawful, but even praiseworthy, to deceive, and even to use the expedient of a lie, in order to advance the cause of truth and piety. The Jews, who lived in Egypt, had learned and received this maxim from them, before the coming of Christ, as appears incontestably from a multitude of ancient records; and the Christians were infected from both these sources with the same pernicious error, as appears from the number of books attributed falsely to great and venerable names, from the Sibylline verses, and several supposititious productions which were spread abroad in this and the following century. It does not indeed seem probable, that all these pious frauds were chargeable upon the professors of real Christianity, upon those who entertained just and rational sentiments of the religion of Jesus. The greatest part of these fictitious writings undoubtedly flowed from the fertile invention of the Gnostic sects, though it cannot be af firmed that even true Christians were entirely innocent and irreproachable in this respect.

XIV. There is a particular consideration that will enable us to render a natural account of the origin of those religious severities of which we have been now speaking, and that is drawn from the genius and temper of the people by whom they were first practised. It was in Egypt that this morose discipline had its rise. That country, we may observe, has in all times, as it were by an immutable law, or disposition of nature, abounded with persons of a melancholy complexion, and produced, in proportion to its extent, more gloomy spirits than any other part of the world.† It was here that the Essenes and Therapeutæ, those dismal and gloomy sects, dwelt principally, XVI. As the boundaries of the church were long before the coming of Christ; as also many enlarged, the number of vicious and irregular others of the Ascetic tribe, who, led by a me- persons who entered into it, received a prolancholy turn of mind, and a delusive notion portional increase, as appears from the many of rendering themselves more acceptable to the complaints and censures that we find in the Deity by their austerities, withdrew themselves writers of this century. Several methods were from human society, and from all the innocent practised to stem the torrent of iniquity. Expleasures and comforts of life. From Egypt, communication was peculiarly employed to this sour and insocial discipline passed into Sy- prevent or punish the most heinous and enorria, and the neighbouring countries, which also mous crimes, and the crimes deemed such, abounded with persons of the same dismal con- were murder, idolatry, and adultery, which stitution with that of the Egyptians;§ and terms, however, we must here understand in thence, in process of time, its infection reach-their more full and extensive sense. In some ed the European nations. Hence arose that train of austere and superstitious vows and

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places, the commission of any of these sins irrevocably cut off the criminals from all hopes of restoration to the privileges of church communion; in others, after a long, laborious, and painful course of probation and discipline, they were re-admitted into the bosom of the church.

*

By this distinction, we may easily reconcile the dif ferent opinions of the learned concerning the effects of xiii.excommunication. See Morinus, de Disciplina Poenitent. lib. ix. cap. xix. p. 67.-Sirmond, Historia Poenitentia publice, cap. i.-Joseph. Augustin. Orsi, Dissert. de

**

II. And here we may observe, in the first place, that there is a high degree of probability in the notion of those who think that the bishops augmented the number of religious

commodation to the infirmities and prejudices, both of Jews and heathens, in order to facilitate their conversion to Christianity. Both Jews and heathens were accustomed to a great variety of pompous and magnificent ceremonies in their religious service. And as they deemed these rites an essential part of religion, it was natural that they should behold with indifference, and even with contempt, the simplicity of the Christian worship, which was destitute of those idle ceremonies that rendered their service so specious and striking. To remove then, in some measure, this prejudice against Christianity, the bishops thought it necessary to increase the number of ceremonies, and thus to render the public worship more striking to the outward senses.*

XVII. It is here to be attentively observed, || added to this, which, though they suppose no that the form, used in the exclusion of heinous bad intention, yet manifest a considerable deoffenders from the society of Christians, was, gree of precipitation and imprudence. at first, extremely simple. A small number of plain, yet judicious rules, made up the whole of this solemn institution, which, however was imperceptibly altered, enlarged by an addition of a vast multitude of rites, and new-rites in the Christian worship, by way of acmodelled according to the discipline used in the Heathen mysteries. Those who have any acquaintance with the singular reasons that obliged the Christians of those ancient times to be careful in restraining the progress of vice, will readily grant, that it was incumbent upon the rulers of the church to perfect their discipline, and to render the restraints upon iniquity more severe. They will justify the rulers of the primitive church in their refusing to restore excommunicated members to their forfeited privileges, before they had given incontestable marks of the sincerity of their repentance. Yet it remains to be examined, whether it was expedient to borrow from the enemies of the truth the rules of this salutary discipline, and thus to sanctify in some measure, a part of the Heathen superstition. But, however delicate such a question may be, when determined with a view to all the indirect or immediate consequences of the matter in debate, the equitable and candid judge will consider principally the good intentions of those from whom these ceremonies and institutions proceeded, and will overlook the rest from a charitable condescension and indulgence to human weakness.

CHAPTER IV.

Of the Ceremonies used in the Church during this Century.

I. THERE is no institution so pure and excellent which the corruption and folly of man will not in time alter for the worse, and load with additions foreign to its nature and original design. Such, in a particular manner, was the fate of Christianity. In this century many unnecessary rites and ceremonies were added to the Christian worship, the introduction of which was extremely offensive to wise and good men. These changes, while they destroyed the beautiful simplicity of the Gospel, were naturally pleasing to the gross multitude, who are more delighted with the pomp and splendour of external institutions, than with the native charms of rational and solid piety, and who generally give little attention to any objects but those which strike their outward senses. But other reasons may be Criminum capitalium per tria priora Sæcula Absolutione, published at Milan in 1730.

See Fabricius, Bibliograph. Antiquar. p. 397, and Morinus, de Pœnitentia, lib. i. cap. xv, &c.

III. This addition of external rites was also designed to remove the opprobrious calumnies which the Jewish and pagan priests cast upon the Christians on account of the simplicity of their worship, considering them as little better than atheists, because they had no temples, altars, victims, priests, nor any mark of that external pomp in which the vulgar are so prone to place the essence of religion. The rulers of the church adopted, therefore, certain external ceremonies, that thus they might captivate the senses of the vulgar, and be able to refute the reproaches of their adversaries.

This, it must be confessed, was a very awkward, and indeed, a very pernicious stratagem; it was obscuring the native lustre of the Gospel, in order to extend its influence, and making it lose, in point of real excellence, what it gained in point of popular esteem. Some accommodations to the infirmities of mankind, some prudent instances of condescension to their invincible prejudices, are necessary in ecclesiastical, as well as in civil institutions; but they must be of such a nature tributed to the accumulation of gaudy ceremonies, is a tion may, in this and the succeeding ages, have conquestion not easily determined.

* A remarkable passage in the life of Gregory, surnamed Thaumaturgus, i. e. the wonder worker, will ilis as follows: Cum animadvertisset (Gregorius) quod The passage lustrate this point in the clearest manner. ob corporeas delectationes et voluptates simplex et imperitum vulgus in simulacrorum cultus errore permaneret-permisit eis, ut in memoriam et recordationem sanctorum martyrum sese oblectarent, et in lætitiam effunderentur, quod successu temporis aliquando futurem esset, ut sua sponte ad honestiorum et accuratiorem vitæ rationem transirent." . e. "When Gregory perceived Tertullian, Lib. de Creatione, p. 792, op. that the ignorant multitude persisted in their idolatry, It is not improper to remark here, that this at- on account of the pleasures and sensual gratifications tachment of the vulgar to the pomp of ceremonies, is a which they enjoyed at the pagan festivals, he granted them circumstance that has always been favourable to the am- a permission to indulge themselves in the like pleasures, bitious views of the Romish clergy, since the pomp of in celebrating the memory of the holy martyrs, hoping religion naturally casts a part of its glory and magnifi- that, in process of time, they would return of their own cence upon its ministers, and thereby gives them, imper-accord, to a more virtuous and regular course of life." ceptibly, a vast ascendency over the minds of the people. There is no sort of doubt, that, by this permission, The late lord Bolingbroke, being present at the elevation Gregory allowed the Christians to dance, sport, and feast of the host in the cathedral at Paris, expressed to a no- at the tombs of the martyrs, upon their respective festi– bleman who stood near him, his surprise that the king of vals, and to do every thing which the pagans were ac France should commit the performance of such an august customed to do in their temples, during the feasts celeand striking ceremony to any subject. How far ambi-brated in honour of their gods."

as not to inspire ideas, or encourage preju-imitation began in the eastern provinces; but, dices, incompatible with just sentiments of the after the time of Adrian, who first introduced great object of religious worship, and of the the mysteries among the Latins, it was folfundamental truths which God has imparted lowed by the Christians who dwelt in the westby reason and revelation to the human race. ern parts of the empire. A great part, thereHow far this rule has been disregarded and vi- fore, of the service of the Church, in this cenolated, will appear too plainly in the progress tury, had a certain air of the Heathen mysteof this history. ries, and resembled them considerably in many particulars.

IV. A third cause of the multiplication of ceremonies in the Christian church, may be deduced from the abuse of certain titles that distinguished the sacerdotal orders among the Jews. Every one knows, that many terms used in the New Testament to express the different parts of the Christian doctrine and worship, are borrowed from the Jewish law, or bear a certain analogy to the forms and ceremonies instituted by Moses. The Christian doctors not only imitated this analogical manner of speaking, but even extended it farther than the apostles had done; and though in this there was nothing that deserved reproach, yet the consequences of this method of speaking became, through abuse, detrimental to the purity of the Gospel; for, in process of time, many asserted, (whether through ignorance or artifice is not easy to determine,) that these forms of speech were not figurative, but highly proper, and exactly suitable to the nature of the things they were designed to express. The bishops, by an innocent allusion to the Jewish manner of speaking, had been called chief priests; the elders, or presbyters, had received the title of priests, and the deacons that of Levites. But, in a little time, these titles were abused by an aspiring clergy, who thought proper to claim the same rank and station, the same rights and privileges, that were conferred with those titles upon the ministers of religion under the Mosaic dispensation. Hence the rise of tithes, first-fruits, splendid garments, and many other circumstances of external grandeur, by which ecclesiastics were eminently distinguished. In like manner the comparison of the Christian oblations with the Jewish victims and sacrifices, produced a multitude of unnecessary rites, and was the occasion of introducing that erroneous notion of the eucharist, which represents it as a real sacrifice, and not merely as a commemoration of the great offering that was once made upon the cross for the sins of mortals.

V. The profound respect that was paid to the Greek and Roman mysteries, and the extraordinary sanctity that was attributed to them, were additional circumstances that induced the Christians to give their religion a mystic air, in order to put it upon an equal footing, in point of dignity, with that of the Pagans. For this purpose, they gave the name of mysteries to the institutions of the Gospel, and decorated particularly the holy sacrament with that solemn title. They used in that sacred institution, as also in that of baptism, several of the terms employed in the Heathen mysteries, and proceeded so far, at length, as even to adopt some of the ceremonies of which those renowned mysteries consisted.* This

See, for many examples of this, Isaac Casaubon, Exercitat. xvi. in Annal. Cardin. Baronii, p. 388, edit.

VI. It may be farther observed, that the custom of teaching their religious doctrines by images, actions, signs, and other sensible representations, which prevailed among the Egyptians, and, indeed, in almost all the eastern nations, was another cause of the increase of external rites in the church. As there were many persons of narrow capacities, whose comprehension scarcely extended beyond sensible objects, the Christian doctors thought it advisable to instruct such in the essential truths of the Gospel, by placing these truths as it were, before their eyes, under sensible images. Thus they administered milk and honey, the ordinary food of infants, to such as were newly received into the church, showing by this sign, that by their baptism they were born again, and were bound to manifest the simplicity and innocence of infants in their lives and conversation.Certain military forms were borrowed to express the new and solemn engagements, by which Christians attached themselves to Christ as their leader and their chief; and the ancient ceremony of manumission was used to signify the liberty of which they were made partakers, in consequence of their redemption from the guilt and dominion of sin, and their deliverance from the power of the prince of darkness.†

VII. If it be considered, in the first place, that the Christians who composed the church, were Jews and Heathens, accustomed from their birth, to various insignificant ceremonies and superstitious rites,-and if it be also considered, that such a long course of custom and of education forms prejudices that are extremely obstinate and difficult to be conquered-it will then appear, that nothing less than a continued miracle could have totally prevented the entrance of all superstitious mixtures into the Christian worship. A single example will tend to the illustrations of this matter. Before the coming of Christ, all the eastern nations performed divine worship with their faces turned to that part of the heavens where the sun displays his rising beams. This custom was founded upon a general opinion, that God, whose essence they looked upon to be light, and whom they considered as being circumscribed within certain limits, dwelt in that part of the firmament, from which he sends forth the sun, the bright image of his benignity and glory. The Christian converts, indeed, rejected this gross error; but they retained the ancient and universal custom of worshipping toward the east, which sprang from it. Nor is that custom abolished even in our times, but still pre

Genev. 1654. Tollius, Insign. itineris Italici, not. p. 151, 163.-Spanheim's notes to his French translation of Julian's Caesars, p. 133.-Clarkson on Liturgies. *Spartian, Vit. Hadriani, c. xiii. See Edm. Merillii Observal, lib. iii. cap. iii.

vails in a great number of Christian churches. From the same source arose various rites among the Jews, which many Christians, especially those who live in the eastern countries, observe religiously at this very day.*

death and the grave. Nor did they differ thus from the Asiatics, without pleading also apostolic authority for what they did; for they alleged that of St. Peter and St. Paul, as a justification of their conduct in this matter.

X. The Asiatic rule for keeping the paschal feast, was attended with two great inconveniences, to which the Christians at Alexandria and Rome, and all the western churches, refused to submit; for, in the first place, as the Asiatics celebrated their festival on the same day that Christ is said to have eaten the paschal lamb with his disciples, this occasioned an inevitable interruption in the fast of the great week, which the other churches looked upon as almost criminal, at least as highly indecent. Nor was this the only inconvenience arising from this rule: for, as they celebrated the memory of Christ's resurrection, precisely on the third day after their paschal supper, it happened for the most part, that this great festival (which afterwards was called by the Latins

VIII. We shall take no more than a brief view of these rites and ceremonies, since a particular, consideration of them would lead us into endless discussions, and open a field too vast to be comprehended in such a compendious history as we here give of the Christian 1 church. The first Christians assembled for the purposes of divine worship, in private houses, in caves, and in vaults, where the dead were buried. Their meetings were on the first day of the week; and, in some places, they assembled also on the seventh, which was celebrated by the Jews. Many also observed the fourth day of the week, on which Christ was betrayed; and the sixth, which was the day of his crucifixion. The hour of the day appointed for holding these religious assemblies varied according to the different times and circumstan-pascha, and to which we give the name of Easces of the church; but it was generally in the evening after sun-set, or in the morning before the dawn. During these sacred meetings, prayers were repeated; the holy scriptures were publicly read; short discourses, upon the duties of Christians, were addressed to the people; hymns were sung; and a portion of the oblations, presented by the faithful was employed in the celebration of the Lord's Supper and the feast of charity.

IX. The Christians of this century celebrated anniversary festivals in commemoration of the death and resurrection of Christ, and of the effusion of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles. The day which was observed as the anniversary of Christ's death was called the paschal day, or passover, because it was looked upon to be the same with that on which the Jews celebrated the feast of that name. In the manner, however, of observing this solemn day, the Christians of Asia Minor differed much from the rest, and in a more especial manner from those of Rome. They both indeed, fasted during the great week (so that was called in which Christ died,) and afterwards celebrated, like the Jews, a sacred feast, at which they distributed a paschal lamb in memory of the holy supper. But the Asiatic Christians kept this feast on the fourteenth day of the first Jewish month, when the Jews celebrated their passover, and, three days after, commemorated the resurrection of the triumphant Redeemer.They affirmed, that they had derived this custom from the apostles John and Philip; and pleaded, moreover, in its behalf, the example of Christ himself, who held his paschal feast on the day of the Jewish passover. The western churches observed a different method; they celebrated their paschal feast on the night that preceded the anniversary of Christ's resurrection, and thus connected the commemoration of his crucifixion with that of his victory over

ter) was holden on other days of the week than the first. This circumstance was extremely displeasing to the greatest part of the Christians, who thought it unlawful to celebrate the resurrection of our Lord on any day but Sunday, as that was the day on which this glorious event happened. Hence arose sharp and vehement contentions between the Asiatic and western Christians. About the middle of this century, during the reign of Antoninus Pius, the venerable Polycarp went to Rome to confer with Anicet, bishop of that see, upon this matter, with a view to terminate the warm disputes which it had occasioned. But this conference, though conducted with great decency and moderation, was without effect. Polycarp and Anicet only agreed in this, that the bonds of charity were not to be broken on account of this controversy; but they respectively continued, at the same time, in their former sentiments; nor could the Asiatics be engaged by any arguments to alter the rule which they pretended to have received by tradition from St. John.*.

XI. Toward the conclusion of this century, Victor, bishop of Rome, endeavoured to force the Asiatic Christians by the pretended authority of his laws and decrees, to follow the rule which was observed by the western churches in this point. Accordingly, after having taken the advice of some foreign bishops, he wrote an imperious letter to the Asiatic prelates commanding them to imitate the example of the western Christians with respect to the time of celebrating the festival of Easter. The Asiatics answered this lordly requisition by the pen of Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, who declared in their name, with great spirit and resolution, that they would by no means depart, in this manner from the custom handed down to them by their ancestors. Upon this the thunder of excommunication began to roar. Victor, exasperated by this resolute answer of the * See Spencer de Legibus ritualibus Hebræorum, Pro-Asiatic bishops, broke communion with them legom. There is an excellent account given of these prayers, pronounced them unworthy of the name of his and of the Christian worship in general, in Turtullian's brethren, and excluded them from all fellowApology, chap. xxxix. which is one of the most noble productions of ancient times.

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Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. v.

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