CHAPTER II.

Concerning the calamitous Events that happened

to the Church during this Century.

phers blended their opinions with its pure doc-who breathed nothing but fury against the distrines, and were so audacious as to submit that ciples of Jesus. The office of an accuser was divine system of faith and piety to be scruti- also become dangerous, and very few were disnized and modified by the fallible rules of im- posed to undertake it, so that the sacerdotal craft perfect reason. was now inventing new methods to oppress the Christians. The law of Trajan was therefore artfully evaded under the reign of his succesthe priests, demanded of the magistrates, with sor Adrian. The populace, set in motion by one voice, during the public games, the destruction of the Christians; and the magistrates, fearing that a sedition might be the consequence of despising or opposing these popular clamours, were too much disposed to indulge them in their request. During these commotions, Serenus Granianus, proconsul of Asia, represented to the emperor how barbarous and unjust it was to sacrifice, to the fury of a lawless multitude, persons who had been convicted of no crime. Nor were his wise and equitable remonstrances fruitless; for Adrian, by an edict issued out to these magistrates, prohibited the putting the Christians to death, unless they were regularly accused and convicted of crimes committed against the laws; and this edict appears to have been a solemn renewal of the law of Trajan. The moderation of the emperor, in this edict, may, perhaps, have been produced by the admirable apologies of Quadratus and Aristides, in favour of the Christians, which were every way proper to dispel the angry prejudices of a mind that had any sense of equity and humanity left. But it was not from the Romans alone, that the disciples of Christ were to feel oppression; Barcochebas, the pretended king of the Jews, whom Adrian afterwards defeated, vented against them all his fury, because they refused to join his standard, and second his rebellion.f

I. In the beginning of this century, there were no laws in force against the Christians; for the senate had annulled the cruel edicts of Nero, and Nerva had abrogated the sanguinary laws of his predecessor, Domitian. But notwithstanding this, a horrid custom prevailed, of persecuting the Christians, and even of putting them to death, as often as sanguinary priests, or an outrageous populace instigated by those ecclesiastics, demanded their destruction. Hence it happened, that, even under the reign of the good Trajan, popular clamours were raised against the Christians, many of whom fell victims to the rage of a merciless multitude. Such were the riotous proceedings that happened in Bithynia, under the administration of Pliny the younger, who, on that occasion, wrote to the emperor, to know in what manner he was to conduct himself toward the Christians. The answer which he received from Trajan amounted to this, "That the Christians were not to be officiously sought after, but that such as were accused and convicted of an adherence to Christianity were to be put to death as wicked citizens, if they did not return to the religion of their ancestors." II. This edict of Trajan, being registered among the public and solemn laws of the Roman empire, set bounds, indeed, to the fury of those who persecuted the Christians, but was the occasion of martyrdom to many, even under the best emperors. For, as often as an accuser appeared, and the person accused of an adherence to Christianity confessed the truth of the charge, the alternative was apostasy or death, since a magnanimous perseverance in the Christian faith was, according to the edict of Trajan, a capital crime. And, accordingly, the venerable and aged Simeon, son of Cleophas, and bishop of Jerusalem, was, by this very law, crucified in consequence of an accusation formed against him by the Jews. By the same law, also, was the great and pious Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, ordered by Trajan himself to expire in the Roman theatre, exposed to the rapacity of furious beasts;§ for, as the law simply denounced death to such as were convicted of an attachment to Christ, the kind of punishment was left by the legislator to the choice of the judge.

III. Such of the Christians as could conceal their profession were indeed sheltered under the law of Trajan, which was, therefore, a disagreeable restraint upon the heathen priests,

* Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iii. cap. xxxii.

t See Pliny's Letters, book x. let. xcvii. and xcviii., which have been illustrated by many learned men, such as Vossius, Bohmer, Baldwin, Heuman, and others.

Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iii. cap. xxxii. p. 103. See the Acta Martyrii Ignatiani, published by Rumart, and also in the Collection of the Apostolic Fathers.

IV. The law of Adrian, according to its natural sense, seemed to cover the Christians from the fury of their enemies, since it rendered them punishable on no other account than the commission of crimes, and since the magistrates refused to interpret their religion as the crime mentioned in the imperial edict. Therefore their enemies invented a new method of attacking them under the reign of Antoninus Pius, even by accusing them of impiety and atheism. This calumny was refuted in an apology for the Christians, presented to the emperor by Justin Martyr; in consequence of which, this equitable prince ordered that all proceedings against them should be regulated by the law of Adrian.‡ This, however, was not sufficient to suppress the rage of bloodthirsty persecution; for some time after this, on occasion of some earthquakes which happened in Asia, the people renewed their violence against the Christians, whom they considered as the authors of those calamities, and treated consequently in the most cruel and injurious manner. The emperor, informed of these unjust and barbarous proceedings, addressed an edict to the whole province of Asia, in which he denounced capital punishment

* Compare Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. ix. with Balduinus ad Edicta Princip. in Christianos, p. 73. + Justin Mart. Apologia secunda, p. 72, edit. Colon. Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. xxvi. P. 148.

to read the arguments of Celsus on that subject. This philosopher wrote against the Christians during the reign of Adrian, and was admirably refuted, in the following century, by Origen, who represents him as an Epicurean, (a mistake which has been almost generally followed;) whereas it appears with the utmost probability, that he was a Platonic philosopher of the sect of Ammonius.* Be that as it will,

10- The learned Dr. Lardner does not think it possible that Celsus could have been of the sect of Ammonius, since the former lived and wrote in the second century, whereas the latter did not flourish before the third. And indeed we learn from Origen himself, that he knew of two only of the name of Celsus, one who lived in the time of Nero, and the other in the reign of Adrian, and afterwards. The latter was the philosopher who wrote against Christianity,

Celsus was a trifling caviller, as is manifest from the answer of Origen; nor do his writings against Christianity serve any other purpose, than to show his malignant and illiberal turn of mind.

Fronto, the rhetorician, and Crescens, the Cynic philosopher, made also some wretched attempts against Christianity The efforts of the former are only known by the mention that is made of them by Minutius Felix; and the enterprises of the latter were confined to a vehement zeal for the ruin of the Christians, and a virulent persecution of Justin Martyr, which ended in the cruel death of that eminent saint.

* Octavius, p. 266, edit. Heraldi.

Justin Mart. Apologia secunda, p. 21.—Tatian, Orat. contra Græcos.

PART II.

THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.

CHAPTER I.

Concerning the state of Letters and Philosophy acquisitions, to be useful to their country. But

during this Century.

in rendering them fit, by their talents and their the instruction acquired in these schools was more specious than solid; and the youth who I. UNDER the reign of Trajan, letters and received their education in them, distinguished philosophy came forth from the retreat where themselves, at their entrance upon the active they had languished during the savage tyranny stage of life, more by empty declamation, than of his predecessors, and, by the auspicious pro- by true eloquence; more by pompous erudition, tection of that excellent prince, were in some than by wisdom and dexterity in the managemeasure restored to their former lustre.* This ment of public affairs. The consequence of happy revolution in the republic of letters, was this was, that the rhetoricians and sophists, indeed of a short duration, as it was not sup- though agreeable to the corrupt taste of the ported by the following emperors, who were, time, which was incapable, generally speaking, for the most part, averse to literary pursuits. of perceiving the native charms of truth, yet Even Marcus Antoninus, who surpassed them fell into contempt among the prudent and the all in learning, gave protection and encourage-wise, who held in derision the knowledge and ment to the Stoics alone, and, after the exam-education acquired in their auditories. Beside ple of that supercilious sect, treated the arts and sciences with indifference and contempt. And here we see the true reason why the writers of this century are, in general, so much inferior to those of the former in point of elegance and purity, eloquence and taste.

II. It must be observed, at the same time, that this degeneracy of erudition and taste did not amount to an utter extinction of the one and the other; for, even in this century, there were, both among the Greeks and Romans, men of eminent genius and abilities, who set off, in the most advantageous manner, the learning of the times in which they lived. Among the learned Grecians, the first place is due to Plutarch, a man of vast erudition, whose knowledge was various, but indigested, and whose philosophical taste was corrupted by the sceptical tenets of the academics. There were, likewise, in all the more considerable cities of the Roman empire, rhetoricians, sophists, and grammarians, who, by a variety of learned exercises, seemed zealous in forming the youth to their arts of eloquence and declamation, and

• Plin. epist. lib. iii. ep. 18.

+ In the first book of his Meditations, sect. 7, 17.

the schools now mentioned, there were two public academies in the empire; one at Rome, founded by Adrian, in which all the sciences were taught; and the other at Berytus in Phonicia, which was principally destined for the education of youth in the science of law.*

III. Many philosophers of all the different sects flourished at this time, whose names we do not think it necessary to mention. Two, however, there were, of such remarkable and shining merit, as rendered them real ornaments to the Stoic philosophy; which the meditations of Marcus Antoninus and the manual of Epictetus abundantly testify. These two great men had more admirers than disciples and followers; for, in this century, the Stoical sect was not in the highest esteem, as the rigour and austerity of its doctrine were by no means suited to the dissolute manners of the times. The Platonic schools were more frequented for several reasons, and particularly for these two,

See the Meditations of Marcus Antoninus, book i. sect. 7, 10.

Justin Mart. Dialog. cum Tryphone, op. p. 218, &c. We find also many of these philosophers mentioned in, the meditations of Marcus Antoninus.

that their moral precepts were less rigorous and which the Christians had at Alexandria. These severe than those of the Stoics, and their doc-sages were of opinion, that true philosophy, trines more conformable to, or rather less in- the greatest and most salutary gift of God to compatible with, the common opinions con- mortals, was scattered in various portions cerning the gods. But, of all the philosophers, through all the different sects; and that it was, the Epicureans enjoyed the greatest reputa- consequently, the duty of every wise man, and tion, and had undoubtedly the greatest num- more especially of every Christian doctor, to ber of followers, because their opinions tended gather it from the several corners where it lay to encourage the indolent security of a volup- dispersed, and to employ it, thus re-united, in tuous and effeminate life, and to banish the re- the defence of religion, and in destroying the morse and terrors that haunt vice, and natu- dominion of impiety and vice. The Christian rally incommode the wicked in their sensual Eclectics had this also in common with the pursuits.* others, that they preferred Plato to the other philosophers, and looked upon his opinions concerning God, the human soul, and things invisible, as conformable to the spirit and genius of the Christian doctrine.

IV. Toward the conclusion of this century, a new sect of philosophers suddenly arose, spread with amazing rapidity through the greatest part of the Roman empire, swallowed up almost all other sects, and proved extremely detrimental to the cause of Christianity. Alexandria in Egypt, which had been, for a long time, the seat of learning, and, as it were, the centre of all the liberal arts and sciences, gave birth to this new philosophy. Its votaries chose to be called Platonists, though, far from adhering to all the tenets of Plato, they collected from the different sects such doctrines as they thought conformable to truth, and formed thereof one general system. The reason, then, why they distinguished themselves by the title of Platonists, was, that they thought the sentiments of Plato, concerning that most noble part of philosophy, which has the Deity and things invisible for its objects, much more rational and sublime than those of the other philosophers.

VII. This philosophical system underwent some changes, when Ammonius Saccas, who taught, with the highest applause, in the Alexandrian school about the conclusion of this century, laid the foundations of that sect which was distinguished by the name of the New Platonists. This learned man was born of Christian parents, and never, perhaps, gave up entirely the outward profession of that divine religion in which he had been educated.* As his genius was vast and comprehensive, so were his projects bold and singular. For he in the church to the rank of presbyters, they would not abandon the philosophers' cloak. See Origen, Epist. ad. Eusebium, tom. i. op. edit. de la Rue.

maintains, that Ammonius deserted the Christian religion Porphyry, in his third book against the Christians, and went over to Paganism as soon as he came to that time of life when the mind is capable of making a wise and

V. What gave to this new philosophy a su- judicious choice. Eusebius, on the other hand, denies perior air of reason and dignity, was, the un- constantly in the profession of Christianity; and he is this assertion; maintaining, that Ammonius persevered prejudiced spirit of candour and impartiality on followed in this opinion by Valesius, Bayle, Basnage, and which it seemed to be founded. This recom- others. The learned Fabricius is of opinion, that Eusemended it particularly to those real sages, monius, one of whom was a Christian writer, and the bius confounded two persons who bore the name of Amwhose inquiries were accompanied with wis other a heathen philosopher. See Fabric. Biblioth. dom and moderation, and who were sick of Græca, lib. iv. cap. xxvi. The truth of the matter those arrogant and contentious sects, which reseems to have been, that Ammonius Saccas was a Chrisquired an invariable attachment to their parti- the pagan philosophy, as to appear a Christian to the tian, who adopted with such dexterity the doctrines of cular systems. And, indeed, nothing could Christians, and a Pagan to the Pagans. See Brucker's have a more engaging aspect than a set of men, Historia Critica Philosophiæ, vol. ii. and iii. Since the who, abandoning all cavil, and all prejudices Lardner has maintained, not without a certain degree of first edition of this work appeared, the learned Dr. in favour of any party, professed searching after asperity, which is unusual in his valuable writings, the the truth alone, and were ready to adopt, from opinion of Fabricius, against Eusebius, and particularly all the different systems and sects, such tenets against Dr. Mosheim. See his Collection of Heathen Dr. Mosheim was as they thought agreeable to it. Hence also and Jewish Testimonies, vol. iii. once of the same opinion with Fabricius, and he mainthey were called Eclectics. It is, however, to tained it in a Dissertation, de ecclesia turbata per rebe observed, as we hinted in the former section, centiores Platonicos; but he afterwards saw reason to that though these philosophers were attached change his mind. His reasons may be seen in his book, de rebus Christianorum, ante Const. Mag. p. 281, &c. to no particular sect, yet they preferred, as ap- They indeed weigh little with Dr. Lardner, who, howpears from a variety of testimonies, the sub-ever, opposes nothing to them but mere assertions, unlime Plato to all other sages, and approved most of his opinions concerning the Deity, the universe, and the human soul.

supported by the smallest glimpse of evidence. For the letter of Origen, which he quotes from Eusebius, is so far from proving that Ammonius was merely a Heathen philosopher, and not a Christian, that it would not be VI. This new species of Platonism was em- sufficient to demonstrate that there was ever such a perbraced by such of the Alexandrian Christians son as Ammonius in the world, since he is not so much as as were desirous of retaining, with the pro-it is Ammonius whom Origen has in view, when he talks named in that letter. But allowing with Valesius that fession of the Gospel, the title, the dignity, and of the philosophical master from whom he and Hercules the habit of philosophers. It is also said to received instruction, it seems very whimsical to conclude have had the particular approbation of Athe-from this circumstance, that Ammonius was no Christian. nagoras, Pantænus, Clemens the Alexandrian, and of all those who, in this century, were charged with the care of the public school *Lucian's Pseudomant. p. 753. tom. i. op.

The title and dignity of philosophers delighted so much these honest men, that though they were advanced VOL. I.-8

The coalition between Platonism and Christianity, in the second and third centuries, is a fact too fully proved to be rendered dubious by mere affirmations. The notion, therefore, of two persons bearing the naine of Ammonius, the one a Heathen philosopher, and the other a Christian writer, of which Dr. Lardner seems so fond, rests upon little more than an hypothesis formed to remove an imaginary difficulty.

in the different parts of the universe as the ministers of his providence, were, by the suggestions of superstition, converted into gods, and worshipped with a multiplicity of vain ceremonies. He therefore insisted, that the religions of all nations should be restored to their original purity, and reduced to their primitive standard, viz. "The ancient philosophy of the east;" and he affirmed, that this his project was agreeable to the intentions of Jesus Christ, whose sole view, in descending upon earth, was, to set bounds to the reigning superstition, and to remove the errors that had crept into all religions, but not to abolish the ancient theology from which they were derived.

attempted a general reconciliation or coalition of all sects, whether philosophical or religious, and taught a doctrine which he looked upon as proper, to unite them all, the Christians not excepted, in the most perfect harmony. And herein lies the difference between this new sect and the Eclectics, who had, before this time, flourished in Egypt. The Eclectics held, that, in every sect, there was a mixture of good and bad, of truth and falsehood; and, accordingly, they chose and adopted, out of each of them, such tenets as seemed to them conformable to reason and truth, and rejected such as they thought repugnant to both. Ammonius, on the contrary, maintained, that the great principles of all philosophical and religious truth were to be found equally in all sects; that they differed from each other only in their method of expressing them, and in some opinions of little or no importance; and that, by a proper interpretation of their respective sentiments, they might easily be united into one body. It is farther to be observed, that the propensity of Ammonius to singularity and paradox, led him to maintain, that all the Gentile religions, and even the Christian, were to be illustrated and explained by the principles of this universal philosophy; but that, in order to this, the fables of the priests were to be removed from Paganism, and the comments and interpretations of the disciples of Jesus from Chris-fore, associated the sentiments of the Egyptianity.

IX. Taking these principles for granted, Ammonius adopted the doctrines which were received in Egypt, the place of his birth and education, concerning the universe and the Deity, considered as constituting one great whole; as also concerning the eternity of the world, the nature of souls, the empire of Providence, and the government of this world by demons. For it seems evident, that the Egyp tian philosophy, which was said to be derived from Hermes, was the basis of that of Ammonius; or, as it is otherwise called, of modern Platonism; and the book of Jamblichus, concerning the mysteries of the Egyptians, puts the matter beyond dispute. Ammonius, there

tians with the doctrines of Plato, which was easily done by adulterating some of the opinions of the latter, and forcing his expressions from their obvious and natural sense; and, to finish this conciliatory scheme, he so interpreted the doctrines of the other philosophical and religious sects, by the violent succours of art, invention, and allegory, that they seemed, at length, to bear some resemblance to the Egyptian and Platonic systems.

VIII. This arduous design, which Ammonius had formed, of bringing about a coalition of all the philosophical sects, and all the systems of religion that prevailed in the world, required many difficult and disagreeable things 'n order to its execution. Every particular sect or religion must have several of its doctrines curtailed or distorted, before it could enter into the general mass. The tenets of the philosophers, the superstitions of the Heathen X. To this monstrous coalition of heteroge priests, the solemn doctrines of Christianity, neous doctrines, its fanatical author added a were all to suffer in this cause, and forced al-rule of life and manners, which carried an aslegories were to be employed with subtilty in removing the difficulties with which it was attended. How this vast project was effected by Ammonius, the writings of his disciples and followers, that yet remain, abundantly testify. In order to the accomplishment of his purpose, he supposed, that true philosophy derived its origin and its consistence from the eastern nations; that it was taught to the Egyptians by Hermes; that it was brought from them to the Greeks, by whose vain subtilties, and litigious disputes, it was rendered somewhat obscure and deformed; but was however, preserved in its original purity by Plato, who was the best interpreter of Hermes, and of the other oriental sages. He maintained, that all the different religions which prevailed in the world, were, in their original integrity, conformable to the genius of this ancient philosophy; but that it unfortunately happened, that the symbols and fictions, under which, according to the eastern manner, the ancients delivered their precepts and their doctrines, were, in process of time, erroneously understood both by priests and people in a literal sense; that, in consequence of this, the invisible beings and demons, whom the Supreme Deity had placed

pect of high sanctity and uncommon austerity. He, indeed, permitted the people to live according to the laws of their country, and the dictates of nature; but a more sublime rule was laid down for the wise. They were to raise, above all terrestrial things, by the towering efforts of holy contemplation, those souls whose origin was celestial and divine. They were ordered to extenuate, by hunger, thirst, and other mortifications, the sluggish body, which confines the activity, and restrains the liberty of the immortal spirit; that thus, in this life, they might enjoy communion with the Supreme Being, and ascend after death, active and unencumbered, to the universal Parent, to live in his presence for ever. As Ammonius was born and educated among the Christians, he embellished these injunctions, and even gave them an air of authority, by expressing them partly in terms borrowed from the sacred scriptures, of which we find a vast number of citations also in the writings of his disciples. To this austere discipline, he added the pretended art of so purging and refining that faculty of the mind which receives the images of things, as to render it capable of perceiving the demons, and of performing many marvellous