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PART II.

THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.

CHAPTER I.

tury produced, was Gregory Abul-Faraj, pri

Concerning the state of Learning and Philosophy mate of the Jacobites, a man of true genius

during this Century.

*

and universal learning, who was a judicious divine, an eminent historian, and a good philosopher. George Elmacin, who composed the history of the Saracens, was also a writer of no mean reputation.

and, in consequence, flourished with increas ing vigour. The European princes had learned, by a happy experience, how much learning and the arts contribute to the grandeur and happiness of a nation; and therefore they invited into their dominions learned men from all parts of the world, nourished the arts in their bosoms, excited the youth to the love of letters, by crowning their progress with the most noble rewards, and encouraged every ef fort of genius, by conferring, upon such as ex

I THE Greeks, amidst the dreadful calamites, discords, and revolutions, that distracted and perplexed their unhappy country, had neither that spirit, nor that leisure, which are ne- II. The sciences carried a fairer aspect in cessary for the culture of the arts and sciences. || the western world, where every branch of eruYet, under all these disadvantages, they retain-dition was cultivated with assiduity and zeal, ed a certain portion of their former spirit, and did not entirely abandon the cause of learning and philosophy, as appears from the writers that arose among them during this century. Their best historians were Nicetas Choniates, Georgius Acropolita, Gregorius Pachymeres, and Joel, whose Chronology is yet extant. We learn from the writings of Gregory Pachymeres, and Nicephorus Blemmida, that the Peripatetic philosophy was not without its admirers among the Greeks, though the Platonic was most in vogue. The greatest part of the Gre-celled, the most honorable distinctions. Among cian philosophers, following the example of the later Platonists, whose works were the subject of their constant meditation, were inclined to reduce the wisdom of Plato and the subtilties of the Stagirite into one system, and to reconcile, as well as they could, their jarring principles. It is not necessary to exhibit a list of those authors, who wrote the lives and discourses of the saints, or distinguished them-totle translated into Latin, assembled about selves in the controversy with the Latin church, or of those who employed their learned labours in illustrating the canon law of the Greeks. The principal Syrian writer, which this cencentury, which amounts to this: "That the Jews were seduced out of their senses by Moses, the

these patrons and protectors of learning, the emperor, Frederic II. and Alphonso X. king of Leon and Castile (two princes as much distinguished by their own learning, as by the encouragement they granted to men of genius,) acquired the highest renown, and rendered their names immortal. The former founded the academy of Naples, had the works of Aris

his person all the learned men whom he could engage by his munificence to repair to his court, and gave other undoubted proofs of his zeal for the advancement of the arts and sciences. The latter obtained an illustrious and permanent renown by several learned produc

* See Bayle's Dictionary, at the article Abulpharage; as also Jos. Simon. Assemani Bibliotheca Orientalis, Vatican. tom. ii. caput xlii. p. 244.

Christians by Jesus, and the Gentiles by Mohammed." This, or some expressions of a similar kind, were imputed to the emperor Frederic, and other persons, perhaps without any real foundation; and the imaginary book to which they have given rise, Abulpharagius, or Abul-Faraj, was a native has been attributed by different authors to Frederic, of Malatia, a city in Armenia, near the source of to his chancellor Peter de Vineis, to Alphonso, king the river Euphrates, and acquired a vast reputation of Castile, to Boccace, Poggio, the Aretins, Pompo- in the east, on account of his extensive erudition. nace, Machiavel, Erasmus, Ochinus, Servetus, Ra- He composed an Abridgment of Universal History, belais, Giordano Bruno, Campanella, and many from the beginning of the world to his own times, others. In a word, the book was long spoken of be- which he divided into ten parts or dynasties. The fore any such work existed; but the rumour that was first comprehends the history of the ancient patrispread abroad encouraged some profligate traders in archs from Adam to Moses. The second, that of licentiousness to compose, or rather compile, a bun. Joshua and the other judges of Israel. The third, dle of miserable rhapsodies, under the famous title fourth, fifth, and sixth, contain the history of the of the Three Impostors, in order to impose upon such kings of Israel, of the Chaldean princes, of the Peras are fond of these pretended rarities. Accordingly, sian Magi, and of the Grecian monarchs. The sethe Spaccio della Bestia Triomphante of Giordano venth relates to the Roman history; the eighth to Bruno, and a wretched piece of impiety called the that of the Greek emperors of Constantinople. In Spirit of Spinoza, were the ground-work of mate the ninth he treats of the Arabian princes; and in rials from which these hireling compilers, by modi- the tenth of the Moguls. He is more to be depended fying some passages, and adding others, drew the upon in his history of the Saracens and Tartars, than book which now passes under the name of the Three in his accounts of other nations. The learned Dr. Impostors, of which I have seen two copies in ma- Edward Pocock translated this work into Latin, and nuscript, but no printed edition. See La Monnoye's published his translation in 1663-4, with a suppleDissertation sur le Livre des Trois Imposteurs, pub-ment, which carries on the history of the oriental lished at Amsterdam in 1715, at the end of the fourth volume of the Menagiana. See also an answer to this Dissertation, which was impudently exposed to the public eye, in 1716, from the press of Scheurleering title: "Specimen Historia Arabum. sive Gregoat the Hague, and which contains a fabulous story of the origin of the book in question. Whoever is desirous of a more ample and a very curious account of this matter, will find it in the late Prosper Marchand's Dictionaire Historique, vol. ii. at the article Imposteurs.

princes, where Abul-Faraj left it. The same learned translator had obliged the public, in 1650, with an abridgment of the ninth dynasty, under the follow

rii Abulfaragii Malatiensis de Origine et Moribus Arabum succincta Narratio."

† Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 115. Giannone, Historia di Napoli, tom. ii. p. 497. Add to these the observations of Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bibli oth. Latin. medii Ævi, tom. ii. p. 618.

tions, but more especially by his famous Astronomical tables. In consequence then of the protection that was given to the sciences in this century, academies were erected almost in every city; peculiar privileges of various kinds were granted to the youth that frequented them; and these learned societies acquired, at length, the form of political bodies; that is to say, they were invested with a certain jurisdiction, and were governed by their own laws and statutes.

IV. Such as were desirous of being chosen professors in any of the faculties or colleges of this university, were obliged to submit to a long and tedious course of probation, and to suffer the strictest examinations, and to give, during several years, undoubted proofs of their learning and capacity, before they were received in the character of public teachers. This severe discipline was called the academical course; and it was wisely designed to prevent the number of professors from multiplying be III. In the public schools or academies that yond measure, and also to prevent such as were founded at Padua, Modena, Naples, Ca- were destitute of erudition and abilities from pua, Toulouse, Salamanca, Lyons, and Co- assuming an office, which was justly looked logne, the whole circle of science was not upon as of high importance. They who had taught, as in our times. The application of satisfied all the demands of this academical law, the youth, and the labours of their instructors, and had gone through the formidable trial were limited to certain branches of learning; with applause, were solemnly invested with and thus the course of academical education the dignity of professors, and were saluted remained imperfect. The academy of Paris, || masters with a certain round of ceremonies, which surpassed all the rest, both with respect that were used in the societies of illiterate to the number and abilities of its professors, tradesmen, when their company was augand the multitude of students by whom it was mented by a new candidate. This vulgar frequented, was the first learned society which custom had been introduced, in the preceding extended the sphere of education, received all century, by the professors of law in the acathe sciences into its bosom, and appointed mas- demy of Bologna; and, in this century, it was ters for every branch of erudition. Hence it transmitted to that of Paris, where was first was distinguished, before any other academy, practised by the divinity-colleges, and afterwith the title of an university, to denote its wards by the professors of physic and of the embracing the whole body of science; and, in liberal arts. In this account of the trial and process of time, other schools of learning were installation of the professors of Paris, we may ambitious of forming themselves upon the same perceive the origin of what we now call acamodel, and of being honoured with the same demical degrees, which, like all other human title. In this famous university, the doctors institutions, have miserably degenerated from were divided into four colleges or classes, ac- the wise ends for which they were at first apcording to the branches of learning they pro-pointed, and grow more insignificant from day fessed; and these classes were called, in aftertimes, faculties. In each of these faculties, a doctor was chosen by the suffrages of his colleagues, to preside during a fixed period in the society; and the title of dean was given to those who successively filled that eminent office. The head of the university, whose inspection and jurisdiction extended to all branches of that learned body, was dignified with the name of chancellor; and that high and honourable place was filled by the bishop of Paris, to whom an assistant was afterwards joined, who shared the administration with him, and was invested with an extensive authority. The college set apart for the study of divinity was first erected and endowed, in the year 1250, by an opulent and pious man, whose name was Robert de Sorbonne, (a particular friend and favourite of St. Louis,) whose name was adopted, and is still retained by that theological society.§

Nic. Antonii Bibliotheca vetus Hispan. lib. viii. c. v. p. 217. Jo. de Ferreras, Histoire d'Espagne, tom. iv. p. 347.

†This arrangement was executed about the year 1260. See Du Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 557, 564.

See Herm. Conringii Antiquitates Academica, a work, however, susceptible of considerable improvements. The important work mentioned in the preceding note, and which is divided into six volumes, deserves to be principally consulted in this point, as well as in all others that relate to the history and government of the university of Paris; add to this, Claud. Hemeræi Liber de Academia Parisiensi, qualis primo fuit in insula et episcoporum scholis, Lutet. 1637, in 4to.

§ See Du Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p.

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to day.*

V. These public institutions, consecrated to the advancement of learning, were attended with remarkable success; but that branch of erudition, which we call humanity or polite literature, derived less advantage from them than the other sciences. The industrious youth either applied themselves entirely to the study of the civil and canon laws, which was a sure path to preferment, or employed their labours in philosophical researches, in order to the attainment of a shining reputation, and of the applause that was lavished upon such as were endowed with a subtile and metaphysical genius. Hence arose the bitter complaints of the pontiffs and other bishops, of the neglect and decline of the liberal arts and sciences; and hence also the zealous, but unsuccessful efforts they used to turn the youth from jurisprudence and philosophy, to the study of humanity and philology. Notwithstanding all this, the thirteenth century produced several writers, who were very far from being contemptible, such as William Brito, Walter 223.-Du Fresne's Annotations upon the Life of St. Louis, written by Joinville, p. 36.

* Beside the writers above mentioned, see Jo. Chr. Itterus, de Gradibus Academicis.-Just. Hen. Bohmer, Præf. ad Jus Canonicum, p. 14.-Ant. Wood, Antiquit. Oxoniens. tom. i. p. 24.-Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris, tom. ii. p. 256, 682, &c.

Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 265, where there is an epistle of Innocent III., who seems to take this matter seriously to heart.-Ant. Wood, Antiq. Oxon. tom. i. p. 124.-Imola in Dantem, in Muratori's Antiquit. Ital. medii Ævi, tom. i. p. 1262 ↑ See Hist. de l'Acad. des Inscript. et des Belles Lettres, t. xvi. p. 255.

Mapes,* Matthew of Vendosme, Alain de l'Isle, Guntherus, James of Vitri, and several others, who wrote with ease, and were not altogether destitute of elegance. Among the historians, the first place is due to Matthew Paris, a writer of the highest merit, both in point of knowledge and prudence, to whom we may add Roderic Ximenes, Rigord, Vincent of Beauvais, Robert of St. Marino,§ Martinus, a native of Poland, Gervase of Tilbury, Conrad of Lichtenau, and William Nangius, whose names are worthy of being preserved from oblivion. The writers who have laboured to transmit to posterity the lives and exploits of the saints, have rather related the, superstitions and miseries of the times, than the actions of those holy men. Among these biographers, James of Vitri, mentioned above, nakes the greatest figure; he also composed a History of the Lombards, that is full of insipid and trifling stories.¶

vinced of this, we have only to cast an eye upon the productions of Alexander de Villa Dei, who was looked upon as the most eminent of them all, and whose works were read in almost all the schools from this period until the sixteenth century. This pedantic Franciscan composed, in the year 1240, what he called a Doctrinale, in Leonine verse, full of the most wretched quibbles, and in which the rules of grammar and criticism are delivered with the greatest confusion and obscurity, or, rather, are covered with impenetrable darkness.

VII. The various systems of philosophy that were in vogue before this century, lost their credit by degrees, and submitted to the triumphant doctrine of Aristotle, which erected a new and despotic empire in the republic of letters, and reduced the whole ideal world under its lordly dominion. Several of the works of this philosopher, and more especially his metaphysical productions, had been, so early as the beginning of this century, trans

VI. Roger Bacon,** John Balbi, and Robert Capito, with other learned men, whose number, however, was inconsiderable, applied them-lated into Latin at Paris, and were from that selves to the study of Greek literature. The Hebrew language and theology were much less cultivated; though it appears that Bacon and Capito, already mentioned, and Raymond Martin, author of an excellent treatise, entitled, Pugio Fidei Christianæ, or, The Dagger of the Christian Faith, were extremely well versed in that species of erudition. Many of the Spaniards, and more particularly the Dominican friars, made themselves masters of the Arabian learning and language, as the kings of Spain had charged the latter with the instruction and conversion of the Jews and Saracens who resided in their dominions. As to the Latin grammarians, the best of them were extremely barbarous and insipid, and equally destitute of taste and knowledge. To be con* Jo. Wolff, Lectiones Memorabil. tom. i. p. 430. † Called in Latin, Alanus ab Insulis.

See the Histoire de l'Academie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres, tom. xvi. p. 243, which also gives an ample account of William of Nangis, page

292.

§ See Le Bœuf, Memoires pour l'Histoire d'Auxerre, tom. ii. p. 490, where there is also a learned account of Vincent of Beauvais, p. 494.

Gervase of Tilbury was nephew to Henry II., king of England, and was in high credit with the emperor Otho IV., to whom he dedicated a description of the world and a Chronicle, both of which he had himself composed. He wrote also a History of England, and one of the Holy Land, with several treatises upon different subjects.

¶ See Schelhornii Amanitates, Literariæ, tom. xi. p. 324. **This illustrious Franciscan, in point of genius and universal learning, was one of the greatest ornaments of the British nation, and, in general, of the republic of letters. The astonishing discoveries he made in astronomy, chemistry, optics, and mathematics, made him pass for a magician in the ignorant and superstitious times in which he lived, while his profound knowledge in philosophy, theolo gy, and the Greek and Oriental languages, procured him, with more justice, the title of the admirable or wonderful doctor. Among other discoveries, he is said to have made that of the composition and force of gunpowder, which he describes clearly in one of his letters; and he proposed much the same correction of the calendar, which was executed about 300 years after by Gregory III. He composed an extraordinary number of books, of which a list may be seen in the General Dictionary.

tt See Rich. Simon's Lettres Choisies, tom. iii. p. 112, and Nic. Antonii Bibliotheca vetus Hispanica.

time explained to the youth in the public schools. But when it appeared, that Almericf had drawn from these books his erroneous sentiments concerning the divine nature, they were prohibited and condemned as pernicious and pestilential, by a public decree of the council of Sens, in the year 1209. The logic. of Aristotle, however, recovered its credit some years after this, and was publicly taught in the university of Paris in the year 1215; but the natural philosophy and metaphysics of that great man were still under the sentence of condemnation.§ It was reserved for the emperor Frederic II. to restore the Stagirite to his former glory, which this prince effected by employing a number of learned men, whom

*Franc. Patricii Discussiones Peripateticæ, tom. i. lib. xi. p. 145. Jo. Launoius de varia Aristot. fortuna in Acad. Parisiensi, cap. i. p. 127, ed. Elswich. It is commonly reported, that the books of Aristotle here mentioned, were translated from Arabic into Latin. But we are told positively, that these books were brought from Constantinople, and translated from Greek into Latin. See Rigord's work de gestis Philippi regis Franc. ad annum 1209, in Andr. Chesnii Scrip. Hist. Franc. p. 119.

Almeric, or Amauri, does not seem to have entertained any enormous errors. He held, that every Christian was obliged to believe himself a member of Jesus Christ, and attached, perhaps, some extravagant and fanatical ideas to that opinion; but his followers fell into more pernicious notions, and adopted the most odious tenets, maintaining, that the power of the Father continued no longer than the Mosaic dispensation; that the empire of the Son extended only to the thirteenth century; and that then the reign of the Holy Ghost commenced, when all sacraments and external worship were to be abolished, and the salvation of Christians was to be accomplished merely by internal acts of illuminating grace. Their morals also were as infamous as their doctrine was absurd; and, under the name of charity, they comprehended and committed the most criminal acts of impurity and licentious

ness.

Dr. Mosheim has fallen here into two slight mistakes. It was at Paris, and not at Sens, and in the year 1210, and not 1209, that the metaphysical books of Aristotle were condemned to the flames. The works quoted here by our author, are those of Launoy, de varia Aristotelis fortuna in Acad. Paris. cap. iv. p. 195, and Syllabus rationum quibus Duran. di causa defenditur, tom. i. op.

§ Nat. Alexander, Select. Histor. Ecclesiast. Capt ta, tom. viii. cap. iii. sect. 7, page 76.

*

he had chosen with the greatest attention and || enforcing his doctrines, both in his lectures and care, and who were profoundly versed in the in his writings; and principally by engaging knowledge of the languages, to translate into one of his learned colleagues to give, under Latin, from the Greek and Arabic, certain his inspection, a new translation of the works books of Aristotle, and of other ancient sages. of the Grecian sage, which far surpassed the This translation, which was recommended, in former version in exactness, perspicuity, and a particular manner, to the academy of Bo- elegance. By these means the philosophy logna by the learned emperor, raised the credit of Aristotle, notwithstanding the hostile efforts of Aristotle to the greatest height, and gave of several divines, and even of the Roman him an irresistible and despotic authority in all pontiff's themselves, who beheld its progress the European schools. This authority was with an unfriendly eye, triumphed in all the still farther augmented by the translations Latin schools, and absorbed all the other systems which were made of some of the books of the that had flourished before this literary revoGrecian sage by several Latin interpreters, lution. such as Michael Scot, Philip of Tripoli, William Fleming, and others; though these men were quite unequal to the task they undertook, and had neither such knowledge of the languages, nor such an acquaintance with philosophy, as were necessary to the successful execution of such a difficult enterprise.†

VIII. The Aristotelian philosophy received the very last addition that could be made to its authority and lustre, when the Dominican and Franciscan friars adopted its tenets, taught it in their schools, and illustrated it in their writings. These two mendicant orders were looked upon as the chief depositories of all learning, both human and divine; and were followed, with the utmost eagerness and assiduity, by all such as were ambitious of being distinguished from the multitude by superior knowledge. Alexander Hales, an English Franciscan, who taught philosophy at Paris, and acquired, by the strength of his metaphysical genius, the title of the Irrefragable Doctor, and Albert the Great, a German of the Dominican order, and bishop of Ratisbon, a man of great abilities, and an universal dictator at this time,§ were the first eminent writers who illustrated, in their learned productions, the Aristotelian system. But it was the disciple of Albert, Thomas Aquinas, the Angelic Doctor, and the great luminary of the scholastic world, that contributed most to the glory of the Stagirite,|| by inculcating, illustrating, and

* Petr. de Vineis, Epist. lib. iii. ep. lxvii. p. 503. This epistle is addressed ad magistros et scholares Bononienses;" i. e. "to the masters and scholars of the academy of Bologna:" but it is more than probable, that the emperor sent letters upon this occasion to the other European schools. It is a common opin ion, that this learned prince had all the works of Aristotle, that were then extant, translated into Latin about the year 1220; but this cannot be deduced from the letter above mentioned, or from any other sufficient testimony that we know of.

† See Wood's account of the interpreters of Aristotle, in his Antiquitat. Oxon. tom. i. p. 119; as also Jebb's preface to the Opus Majus of the famous Roger Bacon, published at London in folio, in the year 1733. We shall give here the opinion which Bacon had of the translators of Aristotle, in the words of that great man, who expresses his contempt of these wretched interpreters in the following manner: "Si haberem potestatem supra libros Aristotelis, (Latine conversos,) ego facerem omnes cremari, quia non est nisi temporis amissio studere in illis, et causa erroris et multiplicatio ignorantiæ, ultra id quod valet explicari."

See Wadding's Annales Minorum, tom. iii. p. 233. Du Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 200, 673.

Jo. Alb. Fabricii Biblioth. Latina medii Ævi, tom. i. p. 113.

The Dominicans maintain, that this Angelic Ductor was the disciple of Albert the Great, and

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IX. There were, however, at this time in Europe several persons of superior genius and penetration, who, notwithstanding their respect for Aristotle, considered the method of treating philosophy, which his writings had introduced, as dry, inelegant, and fit only to confine and damp the efforts of the mind in the pursuit of truth; and who, consequently, were desirous of enlarging the sphere of science by new researches and discoveries.† At the head of these noble adventurers we may justly place Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar of the English nation, known by the appellation of the admirable doctor, who was renowned on account of his most important discoveries, and who, in natural philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, the mechanic arts, and the learned languages, soared far beyond the genius of the times. With him we may associate Arnold

their opinion seems to be founded in truth. See Antoine Touron, Vie de St. Thomas, p. 99. The Franciscans, however, maintain as obstinately, that Alexander Hales was the master of Thomas. See Wadding's Annales Minorum, tom. iii. p. 133.

*It has been believed by many, that William de Moerbeka, a native of Flanders, of the Dominican order, and archbishop of Corinth, was the author of the new Latin translation of the works of Aristotle, which was carried on and finished under the auspicious inspection of Thomas Aquinas. See J. Echard, Scriptores Dominican. tom. i. p. 388, 469. Casim. Oudinus, Comm. de Scriptor. Eccles. tom. iii. p. 468. Jo. Franc. Foppens, Bibliotheca Belgica, tom. i. p. 416. Others, however, suppose, though indeed with less evidence, that this translation was composed by Henry Kosbein, who was also a Dominican.

† Bacon's contempt of the learning that was in vogue in his time may be seen in the following passage, quoted by Jebb, in his preface to the Opus Majus of that great man: "Nunquam fuit tanta apparentia sapientiæ, nec tantum exercitium studii in tot facultatibus, in tot regionibus, sicut jam a quadraginta annis: ubique enim doctores sunt dispersi.... in omni civitate, et in omni castro, et in omni burgo, præcipue per duos ordines studentes (he means the Franciscans and Dominicans, who were almost the only religious orders that distinguished themselves by an application to study) quod non accidit, nisi a quadraginta annis aut circiter, cum tamen nunquam fuit tanta ignorantia, tantus error.. Valgus studentium languet et asininat circa mala translata (by these wretched versions he understands the works of Aristotle, which were most miserably translated by ignorant bunglers) et tempus et studium amittit in omnibus et expensas. Apparentia quidem sola tenet eos, et non curant quid sciant, sed quid videantur scire coram multitudine insensata.” Thus, according to Bacon, in the midst of the most specious appearance of science, the greatest ignorance and the grossest errors reigned almost univer. sally.

That Bacon deserves this high rank in the learned world appears evidently from his book entitled Opus Majus, which was dedicated to pope C ment IV., and which Jebb published at London in

CHAPTER II.

Concerning the Doctors and Ministers of the Church, and its Form of Government, during this Century.

of Villa Nova, whose place of nativity is fixed || tion of the Decretals in five books, which he by some in France, by others in Spain, and undertook at the desire of Gregory IX., and who acquired a shining reputation by his which has been since honoured with the name knowledge in chemistry, poetry, philosophy, of that pontiff, who ordered it to be added to languages, and physic;* as also Peter d'Abano, the Decretals of Gratian, and to be read in all a physician of Padua, who was surnamed the the European colleges.* Toward the concluReconciler, from a book which he wrote in the sion of this century, Boniface VIII. caused a hope of terminating the dissensions and con- new collection to be made, which was entitled, tests that reigned among the philosophers and The Sixth Book of Decretals, because it was physicians, and who was profoundly versed || added to the five already mentioned. in the sciences of philosophy, astronomy, physic, and mathematics. It must, however, be observed, to the eternal dishonour of the age, that the only fruits which these great men derived from their learned labours, and their noble, as well as successful efforts for the advancement of the arts and sciences, were the furious clamours of an enraged and superstitious multitude, who looked upon them as heretics and magicicans, and thirsted so eagerly after their blood, that they escaped with difficulty the hands of the public executioner. Bacon was confined many years in a comfortless prison; and the other two were, after their death, brought before the tribunal of the inquisition, and declared worthy of being committed to the flames for the novelties they had introduced into the republic of letters.

I. BOTH the Greek and Latin writers, provoked beyond measure by the flagitious lives of their spiritual rulers and instructors, complain loudly of their licentious manners, and load them with the severest reproaches; nor will these complaints and reproaches appear excessive to such as are acquainted with the history of this corrupt and superstitious age.† Several eminent men attempted to stem this torrent of licentiousness, which from the heads of the church had carried its pernicious streams through all the members; but their power and influence were unequal to such a difficult and arduous enterprise. The Grecian emperors were prevented from executing any project of this kind by the infelicity of the times, and the various calamities and tumults, which not only reigned in their dominions, but even shook their thrones, while the power and opulence of the Roman pontiffs, and the superstition of the age, prevented the Latins from accomplishing, or even attempting, a reformation in the church.

X. The state of theology, and the method of teaching and representing the doctrines of Christianity that now prevailed, shall be mentioned in their place. The civil and canon laws held the first rank in the circle of the sciences, and were studied with peculiar zeal and application by almost all who were ambitious of literary glory. But these sciences, notwithstanding the assiduity with which they were cultivated, were far from being then brought to any tolerable degree of perfection. They were disfigured by the jargon that reigned II. In the history of the popes, we meet with in the schools, and were corrupted and render- a lively and horrible picture of the complied intricate by a multitude of trivial commen-cated crimes that dishonoured the ministers taries that were intended to illustrate and ex- of the church, who were peculiarly required, plain them. Some employed their labours in by their sacred office, to exhibit to the world collecting the letters of the Roman pontiffs, distinguished models of piety and virtue. Such which are commonly known under the title members of the sacerdotal order as were adof Decretals,§ and which were deemed a very vanced to places of authority in the church, important branch of ecclesiastical law. Rai-behaved rather like tyrants than rulers, and mond of Pennafort, a native of Barcelona, was the most famous of all these compilers, and acquired a considerable reputation by his collec

1733, from a manuscript that still exists in the university of Dub'in, enriching it with a learned preface and a considerable number of judicious observations. The other works of Bacon, which are very numerous, lie for the most part concealed in the libraries of the curious. For a farther account of this eminent man, see Wood's Antiq. Oxon. tom. i. p. 136.Wadding, Annal. Minor. t. iv. p. 161, t. v. p. 51. Thom. Gale, ad Jamblichum de Mysteriis Ægyptior. p. 255. General Hist. and Crit. Dictionary.

showed manifestly, in all their conduct, that they aimed at an absolute and unlimited dominion. The popes, more especially, inculcated this pernicious maxim, "That the bishop of Rome is the supreme lord of the universe, and that neither princes nor bishops, civil governors nor ecclesiastical rulers, have any lawful power in church or state, but what they derive from him." This extravagant maxim, which was considered as the sum and substance of papal jurisprudence, the pontiff's obstinately maintained, and left no means unemployed, See Nic. Antonii Biblioth. vetus Hispan. tom. ii. that perfidy or violence could suggest, to give lib. ix. c. i.-Pierre Joseph, d'Arnaud Vie de Ville-it the force of an universal law. It was in neuve, Aix, 1719.-Niceron, Memoires des Hommes illustres, tom. xxxiv.-Nicol. Eymerici Directorium * Ger. a Maestricht, Historia juris Ecclesiastici, Inquisitorum, pag. 282, where, among other things, we have an account of his errors.

This book was entitled, Conciliator Differentia. rum Philosophorum et Medicorum.

There is a very accurate account of this philosopher given by Joh. Maria Mazzuchelli, Notizie Storiche e Critiche intorno alla Vita di Pietro d'Abano, in Angeli Calogeræ Opus. Scientifici e Philologici, t. xiii.

See Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii.

sect. 353.-Jo. Chifflet, de Juris utriusque Architectis, cap. vi.-Echard et Quetif, Scriptor. Dominican. t. i. Acta Sanctor. Antwerp. t. i. Januarii ad d. vii. See the remarkable letter of pope Gregory IX. to the archbishop of Bourges, which was written in 1927, with a design to reprove and reform the vices which had infected all the various orders of the clergy, and which is published by Dion. Sammarthanus, in his Gallia Christiana, tom. ii. in Append.See also Du Fresne, Annotat. in Vitam Ludovici Sti

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