Unclean quadrupeds A. M. 2514. Abib or Nisan. carcass shall ye not touch; 4 Nevertheless these shall ye An. Exod. Isr. 2. not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the hoof as the camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. 5 And the coney, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. 6 And the hare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you. b 7 And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; che is unclean to you. 8 Of their flesh shall ye not eat, and their b2 Mac. vi. 18; vii. 1.-c. Isa. lxv. 4; lxvi. 3, 17.- d Isa. lii. 11; see Matt. xv. 11, 20; Mark vii. 2, 15, 18; Acts x. 14, 15; xv. 29; Rom. xiv. 14, 17; 1 Cor. viii. 8; Col. ii. 16, 21; being masticated, the grass, &c., being received into it as the beast crops it from the earth. The food, by the force of the muscular coats of this stomach, and the liquors poured in, is sufficiently macerated; after which, formed into small balls, it is thrown up by the œsophagus into the mouth, where it is made very small by mastication or chewing, and then sent down into the second stomach, into which the œsophagus or gullet opens, as well as into the first, ending exactly where the two stomachs meet. This is what is termed chewing the cud. The second stomach, which is called the reticulum, honey-comb, bonnet, or king's hood, has a great number of small shallow cells on its inward surface, of a pentagonal or five-sided form, exactly like the cells in a honey-comb; in this the food is farther macerated, and then pushed onward into the third stomach, called the omasum or manyplies, because its inward surface is covered with a great number of thin membraneous `partitions. From this the food passes into the fourth stomach, called the abomasum, or reed. In this stomach it is digested, and from the digested mass the chyle is formed, which, being absorbed by the lacteal vessels, is afterwards thrown into the mass of blood, and becomes the principle of nutrition to all the solids and fluids of the body. The intention of tumination, or chewing the cud, seems to be, that the food may be sufficiently comminuted, that, being more fully acted on by the stomachs, it may afford the greatest possible portion of nutritive juices. The word cud is probably not originally Saron, though found in that language in the same signification in which it is still used. Junius, with great show of probability, derives it from the Cambro-British chwyd, a vomit, as it is the ball of food vomited, or thrown up, from the first stomach or paunch through the œsophagus into the mouth, which is called by this name. Those who prefer a Saxon derivation may have it in the verb ceopan, whence our word chew; and so cud might be considered a contraction of chewed, but this is not so likely as the preceding. B. C. 1490. An. Exod. Isr. 2. Abib or Nisan. 9 These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye eat. 10 And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you: 11 They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but ye shall have their carcasses in abomination.. 12 Whatsoever hath no fins nor scales in the waters, that shall be an abomination unto you. 13 And these are they which ye shall have Chap. vii. 18; Deut. xiv. 3. Deut. xiv. 9. Heb. ix. 10.- rather a creature nearly resembling it, which abounds in Judea, Palestine, and Arabia, and is called by Dr. Shaw daman Israel, and by Mr. Bruce ashkoko. As this creature nearly resembles the rabbit, with which Spain anciently abounded, Bochart supposes that the Phoenicians might have given it the name of y spaniah, from the multitude of ` shephanim, (or spanim, as others pronounce it) which were found there, Hence the emblem of Spain is a woman sitting with a rabbit at her feet. See a coin of Hadrian in Scheuchzer. arnebeth, as Bochart arah, to crop, and Verse 6. The hare] and others suppose, from nib, the produce of the ground, these animals being remarkable for destroying the fruits of the earth. That they are notorious for destroying the tender blade of the young corn, is well known. It is very likely that different species of these animals are included under the general terms ɔ shaphan, and arnebeth, for some travellers have observed that there are four or five sorts of these animals, which are used for food in the present day in those countries. See Harmer, vol. iii., p. 331, edit.. 1808. Some think the mountain rat, marmot, squirrel, and hedgehog, may be intended under the word shaphan. Verse 7. And the swine] chazir, one of the most gluttonous, libidinous, and filthy quadrupeds in the universe; and, because of these qualities, sacred to the Venus of the Greeks and Romans, and the Friga of our Saxon ancestors; and perhaps on these accounts forbidden, as well as on account of its flesh being strong and difficult to digest, affording a very gross kind of aliment, apt to produce cutaneous, scorbutic, and scrofulous disorders, especially in hot climates. Verse 9. Whatsoever hath fins and scales] Because these, of all the fish tribe, are the most nourishing; the others which are without scales, or whose bodies are covered with a thick glutinous matter, being in general very difficult of digestion. Verse 13. And these—among the fowls—the eagle] Verse 5. The coney] ¡5v shaphan, not the rabbit, but | wa nesher, from nashar, to lacerate, cut, or tear to pieces; hence the eagle, a most rapacious bird of prey, from its tearing the flesh of the animals it feeds on; and for this purpose birds of prey have, in general, strong, erooked talons and a hooked beak. The eagle is a cruel bird, exceedingly ravenous, and almost insatiable. The ossifrage] Or bone-breaker, from os, a bone, and frango, I break, because it not only strips off the flesh, but breaks the bone in order to extract the marrow. In Hebrew it is called o peres, from paras, to break or divide in two, and probably signifies that species of the eagle anciently known by the name of ossifraga, and which we render ossifrage. Ospray] ozniyah, from jy azan, to be strong, vigorous; generally supposed to mean the black eagle, such as that described by Homer, Iliad. lib. xxi., ver 252. Αιετου οίματ' εχων μελανος, του θηρητήρος, Ος θ' αμα καρτιστος τε και ωκιστος πετεηνων. Having the rapidity of the black eagle, that bird of prey, at once the swiftest and the strongest of the feathered race." Among the Greeks and Romans the eagle was held sacred, and is represented as carrying the thunderbolts of Jupiter. This occurs so frequently, and is so well known, that references are almost needless. See Scheuchzer. Verse 14. The vulture] daah, from the root to fly, and therefore more probably the kite or glede, from its remarkable property of gliding or sailing with expanded wings through the air. The N daah is a different bird from the daiyah, which signifies the vulture. See Bochart, vol. iii., col. 195. The kite] aiyah, thought by some to be the vulture, by others, the merlin. Parkhurst thinks it has its name from the root is avah, to covet, because of its rapaciousness; some. contend that the kite is meant. That it is a species of the hawk, most learned men allow. See Bochart, vol. iii., col. 192. Verse 15. Every raven] oreb, a general term comprehending the raven, crow, rook, jackdaw, and magpie. Verse 16. The owly bath haiyaanah, the daughter of vociferation, the female ostrich, probably so called from the noise they make. "In the lonesome part of the night," says Dr. Shaw, "the ostriches frequently make a very doleful and hideous noise, sometimes resembling the roar of the lion; at other times, the hoarser voice of the bull or ox.' He adds, "I have heard them groan as if in the deepest agonies."-Travels, 4to edition, p. 455. The ostrich is a very unclean animal, and eats its own ordure as soon as it voids it, and of this Dr. Shaw observes, (see above,) it is remarkably fond! This is a suffi 29 cient reason, were others wanting, why such a fowl should be reputed to be unclean, and its use as an article of diet prohibited. The night hawk] on tachmas, from den chamas, to force away, act violently and unjustly; supposed by Bochart and Scheuchzer to signify the male ostrich, from its cruelty towards its young; (see Job xxxix. 17-19) but others, with more reason, suppose it to be the bird described by Hasselquist, which he calls the strix Orientalis, or Oriental owl. "It is of the size of the common owl, living in the ruins and old deserted houses of Egypt and Syria; and sometimes in inhabited houses. The Arabs in Egypt call it Massása, the Syrians Bana. It is very ravenous in Syria, and in the evenings, if the windows be left open, it flies into the house and kills infants, unless they are carefully watched; wherefore the women are much afraid of it."-Travels, p. 196. If this be the fowl intended, this is a sufficient reason why it should be considered an abomination. The cuckoo] shachaph, supposed rather to mean the sea mew; called shachaph, from non shachepheth, a wasting distemper, or atrophy, (mentioned chap. xxvi. 16; Deut. xxviii. 22,) because its body is the leanest, in proportion to its bones and feathers, of most other birds, always appearing as if under the influence of a wasting distemper. A foul which, from its natural constitution or manner of life, is incapable of becoming plump or fleshy, must always be unwholesome; and this is reason sufficient why such should be prohibited. And the hawk] 3 nets, from the root ¡3) natsah, to shoot forth or spring forward, because of the rapidity and length of its flight, the hawk being remarkable for both. As this is a bird of prey, it is forbidden, and all others of its kind. Verse 17. The little owl] D cos, the bittern, nightraven, or night-out, according to most interpreters. Some think the onocrotalus or pelican may be intended; for as the word 1 cos signifies a cup in Hebrew, and the pelican is remarkable for a pouch or bag under the lower jaw, it might have had its Hebrew name from this circumstance; but the kaath in the following verse is rather supposed to mean this fowl, and the cos some species of the bubo or owl. See Bochart, vol. iii., col. 272, The cormorant] shalach, from the root which signifies to cast down; hence the Septuagint karappakтns, the cataract, or bird which falls precipitately down upon its prey.. It probably signifies the plungeon or diver, a sea fowl, which I have seen at sea dart down as swift as an arrow into the water, and sieze the fish which it had discovered while even flying, or rather soaring, at a very great height. Fowls and insects which may, A. M. 2514. Abib or Nisan. i CHAP. XI. 18 And the swan, and the An. Exod. Isr. 2. pelican, and the gier eagle, 19 And the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lapwing, and the bat. 20 All fowls that creep, going upon all four, shall be an abomination unto you. and which may not, be eaten. A. M. 2514 Abib or Nisan. creeping thing that goeth upon all 21 Yet these may ye eat, of every flying the grasshopper after his kind. 1 Deut. xiv. 16. Psa. cii. 6; Deut. xiv. 17. Deut. xiv. 18. Psa. civ. 17; Jer. viii. 7; Zech. v. 9.- m Matt. iii. 4; Mark i. 6 The bat] by atalleph, so called, according to Parkhurst, from by at, to fly, and by alaph, darknessor obscurity, because it flies about in the dusk of the evening, and in the night: so the Septuagint vukrepis, from vv§, the night; and the Vulgate vespertilio, from vesper. the evening. This being a sort of monster partaking of the nature of both a bird and beast, it might well be classed among unclean animals, or animals the use of which in food should be avoided. The great owl yanshuph, according to the losing his life by the stroke of a heron's bill, near the Septuagint and the Vulgate, signifies the ibis, a bird eye, who had climbed up into a high tree to take its well known and held sacred in Egypt. Some critics, nest. Bochart supposes a species of the eagle to be with our translation, think it means a species of owl or meant, vol. iii., col. 335. night bird, because the word may be derived from The lapwing] n duchiphath, the upupa, hoopoe, nesheph, which signifies the twilight, the time in which or hoop, a crested bird, with beautiful plumage, but owls chiefly fly about. See Bochart, vol. iii., col. 281. very unclean. See Bochart and Scheuchzer. ConVerse 18. The swan] `n tinshemeth. The Sep-cerning the genuine meaning of the original, there is tuagint translate the word by Toppiva, the porphy- little agreement among interpreters. rion, purple or scarlet bird. Could we depend on this translation, we might suppose the flamingo or some. such bird to be intended. Some suppose the goose to be meant, but this is by no means likely, as it cannot be classed either among ravenous or unclean ́ fowls. Bochart thinks the owl is meant. See on ver. 30. The pelican] p kaath. Asp kaah signifies to vomit up, the name is supposed to be very descriptive of the pelican, who receives its food into the pouch under its lower jaw, and, by pressing it on its breast with its bill, throws it up for the nourishment of its young. Hence the fable which represents the pelican wounding her breast with her bill, that she might feed her young with her own blood; a fiction which has no foundation but in the above circumstance. Bochart thinks the bittern is meant, vol iii. col. 292. The gier eagle] Dracham. As the root of this word signifies tenderness and affection, it is supposed to refer to some bird remarkable for its attachment to its young; hence some have thought that the pelican is to be understood. Bochart endeavours to prove that it means the vulture, probably that species called the golden vulture.-Bochart, vol. iii., col. 303. Verse 19. The stork] on chasidah, from 100 | chasad, which signifies to be abundant in kindness, or exuberant in acts of beneficence; hence applied to the stork, because of its affection to its young, and its kindness in tending and feeding its parents when old; facts attested by the best informed and most judicious of the Greek and Latin natural historians. See Bochart, Scheuchzer, and Parkhurst, under the word on chasad. It is remarkable for destroying and eating serpents, and on this account might be reckoned by Moses among unclean birds. The heron] anaphah. This word has been variously understood: some have rendered it the kite, others the woodcock, others the curlew, some the peacock, others the parrot, and others the crane. The root anaph, signifies to breathe short through the nostrils, to snuff, as in anger; hence to be angry: and it is supposed that the word is sufficiently descriptive of the heron, from its very irritable disposition. It will attack even a man in defence of its nest; and I have known a case where a man was in danger of Verse 20. All fowls that creep] Such as the bat, already mentioned, which has claws attached to its leathern wings, and which serve in place of feet to crawl by, the feet and legs not being distinct; but this may also include all the different kinds of insects, with the exceptions in the following verse. Going upon all four] May signify no more than walking regularly or progressively, foot after foot as quadrupeds do; for it cannot be applied to insects literally, as they have in general six feet, many of them more, some reputed to have a hundred, hence called centipedes; and some a thousand, hence called millipedes; words which often signify no more than that such insects have a great number of feet. Verse 21. Which have legs above their feet] This appears to refer to the different kinds of locusts and grasshoppers, which have very remarkable hind legs, long, and with high joints, projecting above their backs, by which they are enabled to spring up from the ground, and leap high and far. Verse 22. The locust] arbeh, either from arab, to lie in wait or in ambush, because often immense flights of them suddenly alight upon the fields, vineyards, &c., and destroy all the produce of the earth; or from n rabah, he multiplied, because of their prodigious swarms. See a particular account of these insects in the notes on Exod. x. 4. The bald- locust] by solam, compounded, says Mr. Parkhurst, from yo sala, to cut, break, and by am, contiguity; a kind of locust, probably so called from its rugged, craggy form. See the first of Scheuchzer's plates, vòl. iii, p. 100. The beetle]n chargol. "The Hebrew name seems a derivative from charag, to shake, and ha¬ regel, the foot; and so to denote the nimbleness of its Farther directions relative A. M. 2514. B. C. 1490. Abib or Nisan. 23 But all other flying creep-toucheth their carcass shall be An. Exod. Isr. 2. ing things, which have four feet, A. M. 2514. B. C. 1490, An. Exod. Isr. 2. Abib or Nisan. 28 And he that beareth the carcass of them shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: they are unclean unto you. 29 These also shall be unclean unto you 25 And whosoever beareth aught of the car-among the creeping things that creep upon the cass of them, shall wash his clothes, and be earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the unclean until the even. tortoise after his kind, 26 The carcasses of every beast which divideth the hoof, and is not cloven-footed, nor cheweth the cud, are unclean unto you: every one that toucheth them shall be unclean. 27 And whatsoever goeth upon his paws, among all manner of beasts that go on all four, those are unclean unto you: whoso 30 And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the P snail, and the mole. 31 These are unclean to you among all that creep: whosoever doth touch them, when they be dead, shall be unclean until the even. 32 And upon whatsoever any of them, when they are dead, doth fall, it shall be unclean; Isa. lvi. 17. -P Psa. lviii. 8. Chap. xiv. 8; xv. 5; Num. xix. 10. 22; xxxi. 24. motions. Thus in English we call an animal of the The mouse] y achbar. Probably the large locust kind a grasshopper; the French name of which field rat, or what is called by the Germans the hamis sauterelle, from the verb sauter, to leap."-Park-ster, though every species of the mus genus may be hurst. This word occurs only in this place. The beetle never can be intended here, as that insect never was eaten by man, perhaps, in any country of the universe. The grasshopper] chagab. Bochart supposes that this species of locust has its name from the Arabic verb hajaba to veil; because when they fly, as they often do, in great swarms, they eclipse even the light of the sun. See the notes on Exod. x. 4, and the description of ten kinds of locusts in Bochart, vol. iii., col. 441. And see the figures in Scheuchzer, in whose plates 20 different species are represented, vol. iii., p. 100. And see Dr. Shaw on the animals mentioned in this chapter, Travels, p. 419, &c., 4to. edition; and when all these are consulted, the reader will see how little dependence can be placed on the most learned conjectures relative to these and the other animals mentioned in Scripture. One thing however is fully evident, viz., that the locust was eaten, not only in those ancient times, in the time of John Baptist, Matt. iii. 4, but also in the present day. Dr. Shaw ate of them in Barbary "fried and salted," and tells us that "they tasted very like crayfish." They have been eaten in Africa, Greece, Syria, Persia, and throughout Asia; and whole tribes seem to have lived on them, and were hence called acridophagoi, or locust-eaters, by the Greeks. See Strabo, lib. xvi., and Pliny, Hist. Nat., 1. xvii., c. 30. Verse 27. Whatsoever goeth upon his paws] r cappaiv, his palms or hands, probably referring to those animals whose feet resemble the hands and feet of the human being, such as apes, monkeys, and all creatures of that genus; together with bears, frogs, &c. Verse 29. The weasel] choled, from chalad, Syr., to creep in. Bochart conjectures, with great propriety, that the mole, not the weasel, is intended by the Hebrew word: its property of digging into the earth, and creeping or burrowing under the surface, is well known. here prohibited. The tortoise] 3 tsab. Most critics allow that the tortoise is not intended here, but rather the crocodile, the frog, or the toad. The frog is most probably the animal meant, and all other creatures of its kind. Verse 30. The ferret] p anakah, from p anak, to groan, to cry out: a species of lizard, which derives its name from its piercing, doleful cry. See Bochart, vol: ii., col. 1066. The chameleon] n coach. Bochart contends that this is the waril or guaril, another species of lizard, which derives its name from its remarkable strength and vigour in destroying serpents, the Hebrew П cach signifying to be strong, firm, vigorous; it is probably the same with the mongoose, a creature still well known in India, where it is often domesticated in order to keep the houses free from snakes, rats, mice, &c. The lizard so letaah. Bochart contends that this also is a species of lizard, called by the Arabs wahara, which creeps close to the ground, and is poisonous. The snail] on chomet, another species of lizard, according to Bochart, called huluka by the Arabians, which lives chiefly in the sand.-Vol. ii., col. 1075. The mole.] tinshameth, from DV) nasham, to breathe. Bochart seems to have proved that this is the chameleon, which has its Hebrew name from its wide gaping mouth, very large lungs, and its deriving its nourishment from small animals which float in the air, so that it has been conjectured by some to feed on the air itself.-Vol. iii., col. 1078. A bird of the same name is mentioned ver. 13, which Bochart supposes to be the night-owl.—Vol. iii., col. 286. Verse 32. Any vessel of wood] Such as the wooden bowls still in use among the Arabs. Or raiment, or skin-any trunks or baskets covered with skins, another part of the furniture of an Arab tent; the goat-skins, How persons A. M. 2514. whether it be any vessel of wood, An. Exod. Isr. 2. or raiment, or skin, or sack, Abib or Nisan. whatsoever vessel it be, wherein any work is done, it must be put into water, and it shall be unclean until the even; so it shall be cleansed. 33 And every earthen vessel, whereinto any of them falleth, whatsoever is in it shall be unclean; and ye shall break it. 34 Of all meat which may be eaten, that on which such water cometh shall be unclean: and all drink that may be drunk in every such vessel shall be unclean.. 35 And every thing whereupon any part of their carcass falleth shall be unclean; whether it be oven, or ranges for pots, they shall be broken down: for they are unclean, and shall be unclean unto you. 36 Nevertheless a fountain or pit, wherein there is plenty of water, shall be clean: but that which toucheth their carcass shall be unclean. 37 And if any part of their carcass fall upon any sowing seed, which is to be sown, it shall be clean. 38 But if any water be put upon the seed, and any part of their carcass fall thereon, it shall be unclean unto you. 4 Chap. xv. 12. Chap. vi. 28; xv. 12.- Heb. a gathering together of waters. Chap. xvii. 15; xxii. 8; Deut. xiv. 21; Ezek. iv. 14; xliv. 31. in which they churn their milk, may be also intended. Or sack-any hair-cloth used for the purpose of transporting goods from place to place. Verse 33. And every earthen vessel] Such-pitchers as are commonly used for drinking out of, and for holding liquids. M. De la Roque observes that hairsacks, trunks, and baskets, covered with skin, are used among the travelling Arabs to carry their household utensils in, which are kettles or pots, great wooden bowls, hand-mills, and pitchers. It is very likely that these are nearly the same with those used by the Israelites in their journeyings in the wilderness, for the customs of these people do not change. Verse 35. Ranges for pots] To understand this, we must observe that the Arabs dig a hole in their tent, about a foot and a half deep; three-fourths of this, says Rauwolff, they lay about with stones, and the fourth part is left open for the purpose of throwing in their fuel. This little temporary building is probably what is here designed by ranges for pots; and this was to be broken down when any unclean thing had fallen upon it. See Harmer, vol. i., p. 464. Verse 36. A fountain or pit, &c.] This must either refer to running water, the stream of which soon carries off all impurities, or to large reservoirs where the water soon purifies itself; the water in either which are defiled by touching these. A. M. 2514. B. C. 1490. 39 And if any beast, of which ye may eat, die; he that toucheth An Exod. Isr. 2. the carcass thereof shall be unclean until the even. : Abib or Nisan. 40 And he that eateth of the carcass of it shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even he also that beareth the carcass of it shall wash his clothes and be unclean until the even. 41 And every creeping thing, that creepeth upon the earth, shall be an abomination; it shall not be eaten. V "Heb. doth multiply feet. Chap. xx. 25. Heb. souls. Exod. xix. 6; chap. xix. 2; xx. 7, 26; 1 Thess. iv. 7; 1 Pet. i. 15, 16.- -y Exod. vi. 7. Ver. 44. touched the unclean thing, being considered as impure, the rest of the water being clean. Verse 37. Any sowing seed] If any part of an impure carcass fall accidentally on seed about to be sown, it shall not on that account be deemed unclean; but if the water put to the seed to prepare it for being sown, shall be touched by such impure carcass, the seed shall be considered as unclean, ver. 38: Probably this may be the meaning of these passages. Verse 42. Whatsoever goeth upon the belly] In the word 1 gahOn, the vau holem, in most Hebrew Bibles, is much larger than the other letters; and a Masoretic note is added in the margin, which states that this is the middle letter of the law; and consequently this verse is the middle verse of the Pentateuch. Whatsoever hath more feet] Than four; that is, all many-footed reptiles, as well as those which go upon the belly having no feet, such as serpents; besides the four-footed smaller animals mentioned above. Verse 44. Ye shall sanctify yourselves] Ye shall keep yourselves separate from all the people of the earth, that ye may be holy; for I am holy. And this was the grand design of God in all these prohibitions and commands; for these external sanctifications were only the emblems of that internal purity which the holiness of God requires here, and without which nono |