PUG-PUGILISM. bill gives to the birds of this genus a very extraordinary appearance. They have short legs, very short tail, and short wings; their legs are placed far back, and they sit very erect, like auks and penguins, resting not merely on the foot, but on the tarsus. Notwithstanding their shortness of wing, they fly rapidly, although they seem incapable of long-sustained flights. They swim and dive admirably. The best known and most widely distri buted species is the COMMON P. (F. arctica), a native of the arctic and northern temperate regions, breeding not only in high northern latitudes, but as far south as the coasts of England, and migrating from the colder regions in winter, when it is to be found even on the coasts of Spain and of Georgia. The P. is a little larger than a pigeon; the forehead, crown, back of the head, a collar round the neck, the back, wings, and tail are black, the other parts of the plumage white. The P. lays only a single egg, sometimes in a rabbit burrow, but more frequently in a burrow of its own, which often extends three feet, and is not unfrequently curved; Chinese Pug (Looty), found in the Summer Palace at Pekin. Presented to Her Majesty. sometimes in deep fissures or crevices of cliffs. Great numbers congregate together, and their chosen breeding-places are crowded with them. of late been introduced from China and Japan, These are mostly on unfrequented islands and interesting from their peculiar appearance, gentleheadlands, where there is some depth of soil. ness, and docility, with extremely short puggish In some of them, the ground is covered by muzzle; the Chinese breed very small, with smooth puffins, old and young, in thousands. The eggs hair; the Japanese rather larger, with an exuberance are sought after by fowlers, and also the young of long soft hair and a very bushy tail. birds, the flesh of which is used for food. The Scilly Isles were held in the 14th c., under the king as Earl of Cornwall, by Ranulph de Blancminster, for an annual payment of 68. 8d., or 300 puffins at Michaelmas. Puffins are not readily Common Puffin (Fratercula arctica). alarmed by the approach of man, and many are taken by means of a noose at the end of a rod. Their food consists of small crustaceans and fishes. -Other species are found in different parts of the world; one in Kamtchatka, the Kurile Islands, &c., with two silky tufts of long feathers on its head. -The name P. is given in France to the Shearwaters (q. v.), or Puffin Petrels, the genus Puffinus of some ornithologists. PUG, or PUG-DOG, a kind of dog much like the bull-dog in form, and in particular, in its much abbreviated muzzle. The nose is often a little turned up. The disposition is, however, extremely unlike that of the bull-dog, being characterised by great timidity and gentleness. Pug-dogs are only kept as pets. They are often very affectionate PU'GET SOUND, a collection of inlets on the north-western border of Washington Territory, U.S., forming the southern termination of Admiralty Inlet, which communicates with the Pacific by the Strait of St Juan de Fuca, south-east of Vancouver's Island. It forms a sheltered bay and harbour of about 15 square miles, surrounded by a fertile well-timbered country. PU'GGING, a coarse kind of plaster laid on deafening-boards between the joists of floors, to prevent sound. PU'GILISM, or BOXING, is the art of defending one's self or attacking others with the weapons which nature has bestowed-viz., fists and arms. The origin of boxing, or the use of the fists, is likely as old as man himself. We find numerous allusions to it in the classic authors. Pollux, the twin-brother of Castor in the heathen mythology, was reckoned the first who obtained distinction by the use of his fists, conquering all who opposed him, and obtaining, with Hercules, a place among the gods for his sparring talents. The ancients were not, however, satisfied with the use of the weapons of nature, but increased their power by the addition of the Cestus (q. v.). With the ancients, pugilism was considered an essential part in the education of youth, and formed part of the course of training practised in their gymnasia; it was and banishing fear; but it was practised in public valued as a means of strengthening the body rather with a view to the exhibition of the power of endurance than for mere skilful self-defence. The earliest account we have of systematic British boxing is in 1740, when public exhibitions of professors of the art attracted general attention. to this period, the science of self-defence had made but little progress, and strength and endurance constituted the only recommendations of the practitioners at Smithfield, Moorfield, and Southwark fair, which had long had booths and rings for the display of boxing. Broughton, who occupied the position of champion of England,' built a theatre in Hanway Street, Oxford Street, in 1740, for the display of boxing; advertisements were issued announcing a succession of battles between first-rate Up PUGILISM-PULCI. pugilists, who never quitted the stage till one or other was defeated, the reward of each man being dependent upon, and proportioned to, the receipts. Broughton was for 18 years champion of England, and with him commences the first scientific era of pugilism. He propounded some rules for the regulation of the ring, and these remained in authority till 1838, when they were materially altered. Rule 1 is, That a square of a yard be chalked in the middle of a stage, and that in every fresh set-to after a fall, the seconds are to bring their men to the side of the square, and to place them opposite each other, and until this is done, it is not lawful for one to strike the other. Rule 2, That if either of the combatants is unable to be brought up to the square within 30 seconds after a fall and the close of a round, he shall be deemed a beaten man. No man is permitted to hit his adversary when he is down, or to seize him by the breeches, or below the waist, and a man on his knees is to be reckoned down. These rules laid the foundation of fair play, and robbed boxing of half its horrors. To Broughton also is due the introduction of gloves for 'sparring-matches,' where lessons could be taken without injury. The greatest professor of the art was Jackson, who was champion in 1795. He was not only the most scientific boxer of his day, but he gave his art such a prestige and popularity that half the men of rank and fashion of the period were proud to call themselves his pupils. He opened rooms for the practice of boxing in Bond Street, and for years these were crowded by men of note. His 'principles of pugilism' were, that contempt of danger and confidence in one's self were the first and best qualities of a pugilist; that in hitting, you must judge well your distances, for a blow delivered at all out of range, was like a spent shot, and valueless; that men should fight with their legs, using all possible agility, as well as with their hands; and that all stiffness of style and position was wrong. Jackson is still regarded as the best theorist on the 'noble art,' and since his time, it has received no essential improvement. Shaw, the Life Guardsman, who immortalised himself at Waterloo, was a pupil of his, and the prowess which he so brilliantly displayed on that occasion, was owing as much to his scientific training as to his great strength. At this period, pugilism was actively supported by many persons of high rank -the Dukes of York and Clarence, the Earls of Albemarle, Sefton, &c., Lords Byron, Craven, Pomfret. In 1814, when the allied sovereigns were in England, among other entertainments, a 'sparring' display was provided under Jackson's management; and the distinguished foreigners expressed the great gratification they had experienced from the exhibition of so much science and fine physical development. Besides Jackson, Belcher, Gulley, and Cribb were noted champions at this period. George IV. was a staunch patron of boxing in his youth, and although he discontinued by his presence to give countenance to the sport, frequent indications were observable of his desire for its promotion. At the time of the coronation, when the popular feelings were much enlisted on behalf of Queen Caroline, who was excluded from the throne, a body of pugilists were employed to preserve order; and so well did these men perform their duties, that the king presented each man with a gold medal, to commemorate the event, and to shew his satisfaction. This period may be termed the palmy days of the ring;' and from various causes, its decline has since then been uninterrupted. Among other causes, several cases occurred of prizefighters who were tempted to lose fights on which large sums had been staked, and to deceive their most influential backers. The more distinguished patrons of the ring gradually seceded; the Pugilistic Club,' which had been established in 1814, and which included all the aristocratic patrons of the ring, was broken up. The magistracy of the country set their faces against the lawless assemblies of roughs' and pickpockets who latterly formed the greater part of the spectators at prizefights. The electric telegraph, and the establishment of an efficient rural police, have given the finishing touches to an already-expiring profession. Matches can now only be got up by stealth, and the place of meeting is kept a profound secret to the last moment, for fear of interruption. A few years ago, however, the international combat between Tom Sayers the Englishman, and John Heenan the American, revived for a moment public interest in the art; but apart from exceptional matches, the popular feeling is that prize-fighting should not be countenanced, and we may look for its gradual extinction. The art of boxing, as an active and healthy exercise, is likely to be maintained; and the display of science between two accomplished boxers is very interesting, while it is deprived of all the horrors of the prize-ring; the rapidity of the blows, the facility with which they are mostly guarded or avoided by moving the head and arms; the trial of skill and manœuvre to gain a trifling advantage in position, all give a wonderful interest to the spectator, who can watch the perfection of the art devoid of the brutalities of the ring. The pugilists of the present day are mostly publicans; their friends and the patrons of the 'fancy' meet at their houses for convivial evenings, sparring-matches, ratting, and the like. It has constantly been urged in defence of pugilism, that were it abolished, the use of the knife would increase, and Englishmen would lose their present manly system of self-defence. This may be true, if the use of the fist in self-defence depended on the mercenary exhibition of pugilistic encounters, which, however, is mere assumption. The best authority on the subject of pugilism is Fistiana, 24th ed. 1863, office of Bell's Life. PULCI, LUIGI, an Italian poet of distinguished family, was born at Florence, 3d December 1431, and devoted his life to study and to literary composition. He was one of the most intimate friends of Lorenzo de' Medici and of Poliziano, from the latter of whom he derived no little assistance in the composition of his poem Il Morgante Maggiore (Morgante the Giant). This celebrated work, a burlesque epic (in 28 cantos), of which Roland is the hero, is a vivacious parody of the romances of Carlovingian chivalry, which had become (as P. thought) undeservedly popular in Italy. His mocking imagination took a pleasure in turning into ridicule the combats with giants, the feats of magicians, and all the incredible adventures that form the material basis of the medieval epic; and he manages to do it with a wonderfully pleasant and original naïveté. But although the poem is essentially heroico-comic, it occasionally contains passages of the finest pathos, in which P. fortunately seems to forget his design of travestying the inventions of the trouvères, and comes out undisguisedly as a real poet. Moreover, in the midst of the most extravagant buffooneries, we come upon the truest and most natural pictures of manners-the vanity and inconstancy of women, the avarice and ambition of men. P. died in 1487. The Morgante Maggiore is one of the most valuable sources for acquiring a knowledge of the early Tuscan dialect, the niceties and idioms of which have been employed by P. with great skill. The first edition appeared at Florence in 1488, and has since been frequently reprinted. Other works of PULEX-PULLEY. P. are a series of sonnets (often grossly indecent), La Beca du Dicomano (a parody of a pastoral poem by Lorenzo de' Medici); Confessione a la San Vergine, a novel; and some letters.-BERNARDO PULCI, elder brother of Luigi, wrote an elegy on the death of Simonetta, mistress of Julian de' Medici; and a poem on the passion of Christ, and also executed the first translation of the Eclogues of Virgil. LUCA PULCI, another brother, achieved some literary reputation too by his Giostra di Lorenzo de' Medici, a poem in honour of the success won by Lorenzo in a tournament; Il Ciriffo Calvaneo, a metrical romance of chivalry; Driadeo d'Ancore, a pastoral poem; and Epistole Eroide. PU'LEX. See FLEA. 2 7 2 the block of the next pulley, with the exception of 4 Fig. 3. W PULKO VA, a village of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, about 9 miles south of the capital, contains a population of 600. It stands on a ridge called the Pulkova Hills, which command a splendid view of St Petersburg, and is noted for its magnificent observatory, built by the Czar Nicholas, and placed under the direction of M. Friedrich Struve. For an interest-ment, 1 lb. can support 4 lbs., if two movable pulleys ing description of the observatory, see Professor C. are used; 8 lbs., if there are 3 movable pulleys; 16 Piazzi Smyth's Three Cities in Russia (2 vols., lbs., if there are 4 movable pulleys; and if there are Lond. 1862). n movable pulleys, 1 lb. can support 2′′ lbs. It must be noticed, hewever, that in practice, the weight of the cords, and of the pulleys, and the friction of the cord on the pulleys, must be allowed for; and the fact, that in this system all of these resist the action of the power P, and that to a large extent, has rendered it of little use in practice. P Б Ow PU'LLEY, one of the Mechanical Powers (q. v.), consists of a wheel, with a groove cut all round its circumference, and movable on an axis; the wheel, which is commonly called a sheave, is often placed inside a hollow oblong mass of wood called a block, and to the sides of this block the extremities of the sheave's axle are fixed for support; the cord which passes over the circumference of the sheave is called the tackle. Pulleys may be used either singly or in combination; in the former case, they are either fixed or movable. The fixed pulley (fig. 1) gives no mechanical advantage; it merely changes the direction in which a force would naturally be applied Fig. 1. to one more convenient-thus, W can be raised without lifting it directly by merely pulling P down. The single movable pulley, with parallel cords, gives a mechanical advantage: 2 (fig. 2), for a little consideration will shew that as the weight, W, is supported by two strings, the strain on each string is W, and the strain on the one being supported by the hook A, the power, P, requires merely to support the strain on the other string, which passes round C. The fixed pulley, C, is only of service in changing the naturally upward direction of the power into a downward one. If the strings in the single movable pulley are not parallel, Fig. 2. there is a diminution of mechanical advantage-i. e., P must be more than half of W to produce an exact counterpoise; if the angle made by the strings is 120°, P must be equal to W; and if the angle be greater than this, there is a mechanical disadvantage, or P must be greater than W. The following are examples of different combinations of pulleys, generally known as the first, second, and third systems of pulleys. In the first system, one end of each cord is fastened to a fixed support above; each cord descends, passes round a pulley (to the lowest of which the weight, W, is fastened), and is fastened to B TV P -The second system is much inferior in producing a mechanical advantage, but it is found to be much more convenient in practice, and is modified according to the purpose for which it is to be used; two prevalent forms are given in figs. 4 and 5. In this system, one string passes round all the pulleys, and as the tension in every part of it is that produced by the weight of P, the whole force applied to Fig. 4. elevate the lower block with its attached weight, W, is the weight P multiplied by the number of strings attached to the lower block; in fig. 4, W = 4P, and in fig. 5, W = 6P, the pulleys in the upper block being only of use in changing the direction of the pulling force. This system is the one in common use in architecture, in dockyards, and on board ship, and various modifications of it-such as White's pulley, Smeaton's pulley, &c., have been introduced; but the simpler forms shewn above have been found to answer best.-The third system (fig. 6) is merely the first system inverted, and it is a little more powerful, besides having the weight of the pulleys to support the power, instead of acting in opposition to it, as in the former case. By this time, it will have been evident to the reader that the mechanical advantage is not produced by the pulleys, but by the strings, and that the pulleys are merely useful in keeping the strings in a certain position, changing with as little friction as possible the direction of the pull, and W Fig. 5. B PULMONATA-PULSE. affording a convenient means of attaching the subjects. weight. Theoretically, the larger the number of α 1 PÅ 82 W Fig. 6. movable pulleys in one combin- PULMONA'TA, an order of internal and rudimental. PULNEYS, a range of hills in the Madura district of the Madras Presidency of India. The average height of this range is about 7500 feet above the level of the sea. It possesses peculiar advantages for the establishment of a sanitarium. The climate is one of the most equable anywhere to be found, the variation of the thermometer during twelve months in a The pulpit (in Arabic, mimber) forms (From Parker's Glossary.) closed room without a fire being observed to be Pulpit (Fotheringhay, Northamptonshire, 1440 A. D.). no greater than between 58° and 62°. At present, there are only a few European residences built on these hills. PULP, a term employed to describe those very soft and succulent parts of plants, almost exclusively of fruits, which consist of cellular tissue with much juice. The pulp of a fruit is sometimes found in one part of it, sometimes in another; thus, in the peach, plum, and other drupes, it is the mesocarp; in the grape and gooseberry, it is developed from the placentas, and the seeds are embedded in it. PULPIT (Lat. pulpitum), an elevated tribune or desk, from which sermons, lectures, and other solemn religious addresses are delivered. In great churches, the pulpit is commonly placed against the wall, or in juxtaposition with a pillar or buttress. Originally it would appear to have been used chiefly for the singing, chanting, or recitation which form part of the public service, and was a kind of stage sufficiently large to accommodate two or even more chanters. For the convenience of the hearers, this stage began to be used by the bishop, priest, or deacon, for the delivery of the homily; and thus by degrees a tribune expressly suited to the latter use alone came to be introduced. In some of the older churches, the ambo or pulpitum is still used for the chanting of the Gospel and Epistles. In Catholic churches, the pulpit is generally distinguished by some religious emblems, especially by the crucifix; and the pulpits of the Low Countries and of Germany are often masterpieces of wood-carving, the preaching-place in some of them forming part of a great artistic group, as of the Conversion of St Paul, the Vocation of Peter and Andrew, the Temptation of Adam and Eve, and other similar one of the scanty appliances of Mohammedan worship. PULQUE, a favourite beverage of the Mexicans and of the inhabitants of Central America, and some parts of South America; made from the juice of different species of Agave (q. v.), which is collected by cutting out the flowering-stem from the midst of the leaves in the beginning of its growth, and scooping a hole for the juice. From this cavity, large quantities of juice are removed daily for months. The juice is an agreeable drink when fresh, but is more generally used after fermentation, when it has a very pleasant taste, but a putrid smell, disgusting to those unaccustomed to it. Pulque is retailed in Mexico in open sheds called Pulquerias, which also serve for dancing-rooms. When mixed with water and sugar, and allowed to ferment for a few hours, it forms a beverage called Tepache. A kind of spirit is also prepared from it. PULSE (Lat. puls), a name for the edible seeds of leguminous plants, as corn is the name for the edible seeds of grasses. Peas and beans are the most common and important of all kinds of pulse; next to them may be ranked kidney-beans, lentils, chickpeas, pigeon-peas, &c. Legumine (q. v.), a very nitrogenous principle, abounds in all kinds of pulse. Legumine forms a thick coagulum with salts of lime, wherefore all kinds of pulse remain hard if boiled in spring-water containing lime. The best digestion, and very apt to produce flatulence. kinds of pulse are very nutritious, but not easy of PULSE (Lat. pulsus, a pushing or beating). The phenomenon known as the arterial pulse or arterial pulsation is due to the distention of the arteries consequent upon the intermittent injection of blood into their trunks, and the subsequent contraction which results from the elasticity of their walls. It is PULTOWA-PULU. perceptible to the touch in all excepting very minute arteries, and in exposed positions, is visible to the eye. This pulsation,' says Dr Carpenter, involves an augmentation of the capacity of that portion of the artery in which it is observed; and it would seem to the touch as if this were chiefly effected by an increase of diameter. It seems fully proved, however, that the increased capacity is chiefly given by the elongation of the artery, which is lifted from its bed at each pulsation, and when previously straight, becomes curved; the impression made upon the finger by such displacement not being distinguishable from that which would result from the dilatation of the tube in diameter. A very obvious example of this upheaval is seen in the prominent temporal artery of an old person.'-Principles of Human Physiology, 4th ed., p. 492. The number of pulsations is usually counted at the radial artery at the wrist, the advantages of that position being that the artery is very superficial at that spot, and that it is easily compressed against the bone. In some cases, it is preferable to count the number of contractions of the heart itself. The qualities which are chiefly attended to in the pulse are its frequency, its regularity, its fulness, its tension, and its force. The frequency of the pulse varies greatly with the age. In the foetus in utero, the pulsations vary from 140 to 150 in the minute; in the newly-born infant, from 130 to 140; in the 2d year, from 100 to 115; from the 7th to the 14th year, from 80 to 90; from the 14th to the 21st year, from 75 to 85; and from the 21st to the 60th year, 70 to 75. After this period, the pulse is generally supposed to fall in frequency, but the most opposite assertions have been made on this subject. There are many exceptions to the preceding statement; young persons being often met with having a pulse below 60, and cases not unfrequently occurring in which the pulse habitually reached 100, or did not exceed 40 in the minute, without apparent disease. The numbers which have been given are taken from an equal number of males and females, and the pulsations taken in the sitting position. The influence of sex is very considerable, especially in adult age, the pulse of the adult female exceeding in frequency that of the male of the same age by from 10 to 14 beats in the minute. The effect of muscular exertion in raising the pulse is well known; and it has been found by Dr Guy that posture materially influences the number of pulsations. Thus, in healthy males of the mean age of 27 years, the average frequency of the pulse was, when standing, 81, when sitting, 71, and when lying, 66, per minute; while in healthy females of the same age the averages werestanding, 91; sitting, 84; and lying, 79. During sleep, the pulse is usually considerably slower than in the waking state. In disease (acute hydrocephalus, for example), the pulse may reach 150 or even 200 beats; or, on the other hand (as in apoplexy and in certain organic affections of the heart), it may be as slow as between 30 and 20. Irregularity of the pulse is another condition requiring notice. There are two varieties of irregular pulse: in one, the motions of the artery are unequal in number and force, a few beats being from time to time more rapid and feeble than the rest; in the other variety, a pulsation is from time to time entirely left out, constituting intermission of the pulse. These varieties often concur in the same person, but they may exist independently of each other. Irregularity of the pulse is natural to some persons; in others, it is the mere result of debility; but it may be caused by the most serious disorders, as by disease of the brain, or by organic disease of the heart; and hence the practical importance of ascertaining the various meanings of this symptom. The pulse is said to be full when the volume of the pulsation is greater than usual, and it is called small or contracted under the opposite condition. A full pulse may depend upon general plethora, on a prolonged and forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, and possibly, to a certain extent, on relaxation of the arterial coats; while a small pulse results from general deficiency of blood, from feeble action of the heart, from congestion of the venous system, or from exposure to the action of cold. When very small, it is termed thread-like. The tension of the pulse is the property by which it resists compression, and may be regarded as synonymous with hardness. A hard pulse can scarcely, be stopped by any degree of pressure of the finger. It occurs in many forms of inflammation, and its presence is commonly regarded as one of the best; indications of the necessity of venesection. A soft or compressible pulse is indicative of general weakness. The strength of the pulse depends chiefly on the force with which the blood is driven from the heart, but partly also upon the tonicity of the artery itself and the volume of the blood. A strong pulse is correctly regarded as a sign of a vigorous state of the system; it may, however, arise from hypertrophy of the left ventricle of the heart, and remain as a persistent symptom even when the general powers are failing. As strength of the pulse usually indicates vigour, so weakness of the pulse indicates debility. There may, however, be cases in which weakness of the pulse may occur in association with undiminished energy of the system at large. For example, active congestion of the lungs may so far impede the passage of the blood through these organs that it cannot reach the heart in due quantity; the necessary result is a weak and feeble pulse, which will rapidly increase in strength if the congestion is relieved by free blood-lettings. Various expressive adjectives have been attached to special conditions of the pulse, into the consideration of which our space will not permit us to enter. Thus, we read of the jerking pulse, the hobbling pulse, the corded pulse, the wiry pulse, the thrilling pulse, the rebounding pulse, &c. PULTOWA. See POLTAVA. PU'LTUSK, a town of Poland, in the government of Plock, is situated in a thickly-wooded district on the Narew, 35 miles north-north-east of Warsaw. It contains numerous churches and a very large bishop's palace. Pop. 4772. Here, on December 26, 1806, was fought one of the battles of the campaign of Eylau, between the Russians The field was most obstinately and the French. contested, but the victory, which, however, was claimed by both armies, inclined in favour of the French. PU'LU, a beautiful substance, resembling fine silk, of a rich brown colour and satin lustre, used largely as a styptic by the medical practitioners of Holland, and lately introduced into this country for the same purpose. It consists of the fine hairs from the stipes of one or more species of tree-fern, referrible, without doubt, to the genus Cibotium. It was first imported into this country in 1844 from Owhyhee under the name of Pulu, or vegetable silk, and was proposed as a substitute for silk in the manufacture of hats, but could not be applied. In 1856, it was again imported from Singapore under the Malay names of Penghawar Djambi and Pakoe Kidang, and was said to have been used in Dutch pharmacy for a long period as a styptic. Several importations have since taken 7 |