SAIL-SAILINGS. the outer edge all round the sail; this rope has eyes in it, to which the various ropes employed in connection with the sail are fastened. The top of a sail is its head; the bottom, its foot; and the sides are leeches; the upper corners are termed earrings; the lower corners of a square sail, and the after lower corner of other sails, clews; the front lower corner of a fore-and-aft sail is the tack. The ropes from the lower corners, used in tightening the sail against the wind, are the sheets. The sails of a ship are either 'square' or 'foreand-aft. The square-sails-beginning from below -are, the course, the topsail, the topgallant-sail, the royal, and, though very rarely used, the sky scraper. Each has the name of the mast on which it is set prefixed, as 'fore-topsail,' 'main-royal,' &c. The square-sails are made fast by their heads to yards, the foot being drawn to the extremity of the yard below. Fore-and-aft sails are the spanker or driver, extended by the gaff at its head, boom at its foot, and mast on its fore-leech; the staysails, which are suspended by rings to the stays, and the Jibs (q. v.). In a three-masted vessel, the sails of most importance are the main-course, the spanker, the topsails, the fore-staysail, and the jibs, which can usually be all distended to the full without taking wind from each other. In very light winds, when every breath is of consequence, the area of the sails is increased by setting the studdingsails, which are oblong sails set on each side of the 1, Course; 1a, Studding-sails; 2, Fore-topsail; 2a, Studding-sails; 3, Main-topsail; 3a, Studding-sails; 4, Mizen-topsail; 5, Fore-topgallant-sail; 5a, Studding-sails; 6, Main-topgallant-sail; 6a, Studding-sails; 7, Mizen-topgallant-sail; 8, Fore-royaltopsail; 8a, Studding-sails; 9, Main-royal-topsail; 9a, Studding-sails; 10, Mizen-royal-topsail; 11, Fore-skysail-topsail; 12, Main-skysail-topsail; 13, Mizen-skysail-topsail; 14, Fore-topmast-staysail jib; 15, Jib; 16, Flying jib; 17, Mizen spanker; 18, Spenser; 19, Main-royal-staysail; 20, Main-topgallant-staysail; 21, Mizen-royal-staysail. square-sails, on short booms run out beyond the yards of the latter. Fig. 4 represents a square-rigged ship with the whole of her canvas shewn. In small craft and boats, the most common sail is a lugsail (see LUGGER), which is a small square-sail, occasionally supplemented by a shoulder-of-mutton (triangular) sail on a shorter mast at the stern. Cutters or sloops carry a large spanker, with a topsail of similar shape, and jibs; some having the power of setting a large course when the wind is astern; but it is obvious that the course and spanker cannot be used together. A schooner uses the same sails as a cutter, except that, in one form, she carries a square topsail and topgallant-sail on the foremast. Sails are furnished with rows of short ropes for the purpose of reefing them, when their area is too large for the wind. The effect of a sail is increased by wetting it, as the pores of the canvas close more tightly through the swelling of the hemp. SAILCLOTH, a very strong fabric, woven generally with linen yarn, but in America it has been made wholly of cotton; and in this country, under Armitage's patent, of cotton and linen mixed. Hair-such as of the ox, horse, and deer-has also been used, under Taylor's patent, in 1832, but without success. Linen and hempen cloths are those generally used in all parts of Europe. SAILINGS, the technical name in Navigation for the various modes of determining the amount or direction of a ship's motion, or her position after having sailed a given distance, in a given direction. The direction of a ship's motion is her course, and is expressed in terms of the angle between the line of direction and the meridian; the length of her B C SAILINGS. = its drift, i. e., its rate per hour multiplied by the num- path is the distance; the distance in nautical miles, made good to the east or west, is the departure, and is measured along a parallel; the difference of latitude is an arc of the meridian intercepted by the parallels, one of which passes through the place sailed from, the other through the place sailed to; and the difference of longitude is an arc of the equator intercepted by meridians through the same two places. It will at once be seen that if a ship sails along a meridian, the difference of latitude becomes the course, and there is no departure or difference of longitude; and that if it sails along a parallel the departure will be the same as the distance, and there will be no difference of latitude. The two general questions which present themselves to the navigator for solution, are-1. Given the course and distance from one place in given latitude and longitude to another place, find the latitude and longitude of the other; and 2. Given the latitude and longitude of two places, find the course and distance from the one to the other. The simplest way in which such problems can be solved is by the method known as plane sailing, a method, however, which is only roughly approximate, assuming, as it does, that the surface of the sea is a plane; it is consequently applicable only to short distances and low latitudes where the meridians are nearly parallel. According to 'plane A sailing,' the elements of a ship's path are represented by a rightangled plane triangle, as ABC (fig.), where AB is the distance, the angle BAC the course, AC the difference of latitude (AC being a portion of a meridian, and BC of a parallel of latitude), and BC the departure. The two problems given above are in this method merely simple cases of the resolution of a right-angled plane triangle (see TRIGONOMETRY), for if the course and distance are given, the dif. of lat. distance x cos. of course, and dep. dist. x sin. of course; while the idea of Mercator's Sailing is a perfect method of obtaining dif. of long., as distinct from dep., is quite in- the same result as is found approximately by middle admissible, since the method presupposes that latitude sailing, but in the former case the dif. of the ship is sailing on an absolutely flat plain. If long. is found from the departure, while in this the ship does not stand on one course, but changes method, the difference of latitude is employed for from time to time, the calculation of her final the same purpose. A table of meridional parts, as position may be effected, either by the previous it is called, is necessary; this table shews the method, repeated for each change of course, or number of minutes in Mercator's projection (see more conveniently, by the method of traverse sailing. MAP) corresponding to each degree and minute This method consists in the resolution of a ship's of latitude up to 78°, and is employed as follows course and distance into two courses and dis- The latitude sailed from, and that reached, being tances, the courses being in the direction of some of known or found, the meridional parts for each the four cardinal points of the compass; thus, a are obtained, and their difference, if the latitudes ship which has sailed S.-W.-by-S. for 24 miles, has are of the same name, or sum if of opposite names, made 20 miles of southing, and 13.3 miles of westing. gives the dif. of lat. We have then a right-angled The traverse table has consequently six columns, the triangle, with the dif. of lat. and dif. of long. formfirst containing the courses; the second, the corres-ing the two smaller sides, and the vertical angle ponding distances; while the third and fourth contain the difference of latitude for each course, which, if N. is put in one column, and if S. into the other; the fifth and sixth columns, marked respectively E. and W., contain in a similar manner the departure for each When the table has been made out for the various courses and distances, the columns of dif. of lat. and departure are summed up, and the difference between the third and fourth, and between the fifth and sixth columns, gives the dif. of lat. and departure between the place sailed from and the place arrived at, from which the course and distance made good can be calculated as before. When a current interferes in any way, either by accelerating or retarding the ship's motion, its effect is estimated as in traverse sailing, as if it were one course and distance, the set of the current being the course, and = course. representing the course, whence dif. of long. = dif. of lat. x tan. of course. This sailing is the one most generally employed by navigators, but is inferior in practice to middle-latitude sailing, in the cases noticed under that head, for though it be a perfect, and the other merely an approximate method, yet a small error in the course (if large), or in the dif. of lat., becomes greatly magnified in the dif. of long.; while in the case of the latter, a considerable error in departure is hardly magnified, and a large error in the course (if nearly E. and W.) becomes imperceptible in the dif. of long. It is, however, better to work the problem according to both methods, and then estimate the true result as nearly as possible. Great Circle Sailing (q. v.), the most perfect of all methods for finding a ship's course, is separately noticed. See also SPHEROGRAPH. SAINFOIN-ST BEES. The obstacles that interfere with the correctness of the mariner's calculations are chiefly those which affect his data, the course and distance, the more important being the magnetic deviation of the compass produced by the attraction of the ship, errors in the estimated leeway or in the set and drift of currents, &c.; all of which require to be taken into account. The necessity for frequently checking the Dead-reckoning (q. v.), by means of astronomical observations, is sufficiently apparent. SAINFOIN, or SAINTFOIN (Onobrychis sativa), a plant of the natural order Leguminosa, suborder Papilionacea, of a genus nearly allied to Hedysarum (see FRENCH HONEYSUCKLE), but having one-seeded pods, which are marked with wrinkles or pits, and are more or less prickly-toothed at the margin. It is a spreading perennial, about 2 or 3 feet high, with leaves of 9-15 smooth acute leaflets, and spikes of Saintfoin (Hedysarum onobrychis). that word, will similarly be found under the other part of the name). SAINT AMAND, a town of France, in the dep. of Cher, stands on the right bank of the river of that name, 27 miles south-south-east of Bourges. It carries on a trade in iron, and contains important iron-works. Pop. (1862) 7825. SAINT AMAND, a small town of France, in the dep. of Nord, 8 miles north-west of Valenciennes. The town contains hot sulphur-springs; flax of a superior quality is cultivated; and lace, clay-pipes, and porcelain are manufactured. Pop. (1862) 6739. SAINT ANTHONY'S FIRE. See ANTHONY, SAINT. ST ARNAUD. See LEROY. on the east coast of Florida, U.S., is built on SAINT AUGUSTINE, an ancient Spanish town the western shore of an estuary 2 miles from the Atlantic, 160 miles south of Savannah. It enjoys a mild and equable climate, and is a resort for consumptive invalids. It was founded in 1565, and is the oldest town in the United States. Pop. (1860), 1175. SAINT AU'STELL, a small town of Cornwall, 13 miles north-east of Truro by railway. Woollen goods are manufactured, and at the bay of Saint Austell, from which the town is about a mile distant, there is a pilchard-fishery, and tin and copper are exported. Pop. (1861) 3825. ST BEES, an ancient village of Cumberland, pleasantly situated on the bay formed by St Bees Head. It is 4 miles south of Whitehaven, and about 10 miles beyond the limits of the Lake district. St Bees is a station on the Whitehaven and Furness Junction Railway. The parish is very large, comprising town and port of Whitehaven, village of St Bees, and several chapelries and townships. The village of St Bees contains about 1000 inhabitants. According to tradition, preserved by the early chroniclers, St Bees originated in a nunnery founded here, 650 A. D., by an Irish saint named Bega, of whom Sandford's MS. (in the Dean and Chapter Library, Carlisle) records a very pretty legend. It appears to beautiful flesh-coloured flowers, striated with rose- whose time we find that Ranulph Earl of Cumberhave been destroyed before the reign of Henry I., in red, on long stalks. It is a native of the continent land reconstituted it as a priory; but after the of Europe and of the south of England, and is much dissolution of the monasteries, it went to ruin. The cultivated as a fodder-plant in dry, and particularly institution known as ST BEES COLLEGE was estabin calcareous soils, to which it is admirably adapted. lished in 1816 by Dr Law, then Bishop of Chester, Its cultivation was introduced into England in 1651; to supply a systematic training in divinity to young and before the introduction of turnip-husbandry, men desirous of ordination, whose means the sheep-farmers of the chalk districts depended inadequate to defray the expenses of a university almost entirely upon it, as they still do to such a education. The bishops of the province of York degree, that in many leases there is a stipulation had previously been compelled to ordain a number for the tenant's leaving a certain extent of land in of such men as literates, the poverty of many of sainfoin. It is, however, a very local crop, being the northern benefices not securing a sufficient scarcely cultivated on any but the most calcareous supply of graduates. A portion of the ruined soils, where nothing else is nearly equal to it, priory of St Bees was fitted up by the Earl of Lonsdale although it has been found to succeed well on as lecture-rooms, library, &c. On the recommenany soil sufficiently dry. There is no more nutri-dation of the bishop, an incumbent was selected for tious fodder than S., whether for sheep, oxen, or the perpetual curacy of St Bees (value, £100 per horses. Even the dry stems of a crop which annum) by the patron, the Earl of Lonsdale, with has produced seed are readily consumed by cattle, a view to his holding the position of Principal of if cut into small pieces. S. sometimes endures the College in connection with the living. The for 10, or even 15 years on the same land-more following persons have held this office-viz., Rev. generally only for 4 to 7 years; and in the eastern W. Ainger, D.D., Fellow of St John's College, counties of England it is often sown instead of clover on light and somewhat calcareous sands and sandy loams, and the ground is ploughed again in two or three years.-The name S. is perhaps rather Sang-foin, from the blood-colour of the flowers, than Saint-foin (Holy Hay). SAINT A'LBANS. See ALBANS, SAINT. (Other names beginning with Saint, and not given under were Cambridge, appointed 1816; Rev. R. P. Buddicom, M.A., Fellow of Queen's College, Cambridge, ap pointed 1840; Rev. R. Parkinson, D.D., Canon of Manchester, appointed 1846; Rev. G. H. Ainger, D.D., Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, appointed 1858. The Principal selects his own staff of lecturers. The expenses are defrayed from the fees paid by the students-£10 each term. The College SAINT CATHERINE'S-SAINT JOSEPH. course extends over two years, each divided into two terms, from about January 28 to May 5, and August 25 to December 5. During this period, the standard English divinity works, with the Greek Testament, are chiefly studied, and the composition of sermons, &c., practised. The students reside in lodgings in the village, under the control of the Principal, and attend the service daily in the parish church, the transepts of which were restored in 1855 for their accommodation. A new lectureroom and library were built in 1863, adjoining the ancient structure. Students are admitted at the age of 21, on producing testimonials of character, &c., satisfactory to the Principal. Graduates of a university where there is no divinity course, are admitted to the second year's course on producing their diploma, along with the usual testimonials as to their fitness for the ministry. Students who have passed the course are not now confined to the northern province, as was the original design, but are admitted into most of the southern dioceses. The average number of students on the boards is about 80, and the total number ordained, up to 1864, is about 1500. The College Calendar is published by Messrs Rivington, London. SAINT CATHERINE'S, a thriving town of Canada West, stands at the mouth of the Welland Canal, on the south shore of Lake Ontario, 34 miles south-south-east of Toronto. The canal supplies unlimited water-power, and the town contains a number of excellent mills. Iron-wares, cloth and pottery, are manufactured, and ship-building and a flourishing general trade are carried on. Pop. (1861) about 7000. in harbour, on a flagstaff at the stern; in boats, the latter is the only mode of flying it. A full-dress ensign is the largest flag used, being often but little smaller than the quarter-deck of the ship which hoists it. a town of an SAINT-GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, France, in the dep. of Seine-et-Oise, on elevation on the left bank of the Seine, 14 miles by railway west-north-west of Paris. It contains three handsome squares, a parish church, with a monument erected by George IV. over the remains of James II., several learned and other societies, and some factories. Pop. (1862) 12,263. S.-G. had its origin in a monastery built by King Robert in the beginning of the 11th c., on the summit of the hill which was surrounded by the forest of Lyda (Laye), and dedicated to St Germain. The town, as well as the royal château, which was built either during the reign of King Robert, or soon after, was sacked by the English in 1346, in 1419, and in 1438. At S.-G. the marriage of Francis L. was celebrated, and this king rebuilt the château in 1547. From before the time of Philippe-Auguste, S. G. had been the residence of the French court during a portion of the year, but Louis XIV. transferred the court to Versailles, and from this time the fortunes of S.-G. declined. Later, the château of S.-G. was assigned by Louis XIV. as the residence of the dethroned James II. of England, and here in exile that monarch held his morose court, devoting almost the whole day to religious observances. The château is now used as barracks and for other purposes. The Forest of S.-G. comprises 10,873 English acres. SAINT CROIX, an American river, called also SAINT HELENS, a flourishing town of Lanthe Passamaquoddy, which, flowing out of Grand cashire, on a small affluent of the Mersey, 3 miles Lake, on the eastern border of Maine, runs east-north-east of Prescot by railway. It is a stragg south-east 75 miles to Passamaquoddy Bay, and forms a portion of the boundary between the United States and New Brunswick. SAINT DOMI'NGO. See HAYTI. SAINT DOMINGO BARK. BARK. ling, ill-built, but thriving town, with an extensive trade in coal, and containing plate-glass, copper, bottle, and other works. The town also contains potteries, breweries, tan-yards, iron and brass See CARIBBEE foundries, and chemical works. Pop. (1861) 18,396. SAINTE-MARIE-AUX-MINES, a manufacturing town of France, in the dep. of HautRhin, 14 miles north-west of Colmar. In former times, it owed its prosperity to the silver mines in the vicinity; these, however, are now exhausted. Dyeing, yarn-spinning, manufactures of cotton, paper, and cherry-brandy are now the principal branches of industry. Pop. (1862) 7920. SAINTES, an old town of France, in the dep. of Charente-Inférieure, on the left bank of the Charente, 43 miles south-east of La Rochelle. In ancient times, this town, under the name of Mediolanum, was the capital of the Santones, from whom the subsequent province derived the name of Saintonge. It contains interesting Roman remains, as a triumphal arch, and the ruins of an amphitheatre, circus, &c. Pop. (1862) 8405. SAINT GEORGE'S ENSIGN is the distinguishing flag of the British navy. It consists of a red cross on a white field, with a union-jack in the dexter chief corner, as shewn in fig. 2 of the article FLAG. Under FLAG OFFICER, it is implied that an admiral, vice-admiral, or rear-admiral may have his flag red, white, or blue, according to the squadron to which he belongs. By a regulation of 1864, this old custom was altered; the squadrons are abolished, and the white Saint George's ensign is the badge of all ships in the navy. The red and blue ensigns are now left to government vessels not being ships of war-and merchant vessels respectively. The ensign is borne at the peak, or, SAINT HE'LIERS, capital of Jersey (q. v.), the chief of the Channel Islands, is situated on the south shore of the island, and on the east side of St Aubin Bay, lat. 49° 11' N., long. 2° 6' W. It is defended by Elizabeth Castle, on a rocky island off the shore, approached by a causeway at low water; and by Fort Regent, on the south-east side of the town, built about 1806, on a scarped granite rock, at an enormous expense. The harbour is large, and the pier commodious, but steamers cannot enter at all times of the tide. At spring tides, the water rises 40 feet. Victoria College-a handsome edifice, built on an eminence, in 1851-the hospital, the theatre, and the churches, are the chief buildings. The area of the town has rapidly increased within recent years. An active trade is carried on with England, France, and India. Pop. 30,000, including a garrison of upwards of 500 men. SAINT IGNATIUS' BEAN. See NuX VOMICA and STRYCHNOS. SAINT-JEAN-D'ANGÉLY, a small town of France, dep. of Charente-Inférieure, 15 miles northnorth-east of Saintes. Pop. (1861) 5546. SAINT JOHN'S BREAD. See CAROB. SAINT JOHN'S WORT. See HYPERICUM. SAINT JOSEPH, a city of Missouri, U.S., on the left bank of the Missouri River, on the eastern border of Kansas, 566 miles west-north-west of St Louis. It is connected by railway with Hannibal, on the Mississippi, and is the chief dépôt for the emigrant and supply trains to the western settlements. It has a court-house, ten churches, a SAINT JUST-SAINT MALO. convent, several large hotels, five newspapers, three of which are dailies, steam-mills, and factories, and a large trade with the interior of the continent. Pop. (1860) 8930. on the right bank of the river Vire, 55 miles by 8539. SAINT JUST, LOUIS ANTOINE DE, a notable figure in the first French Revolution, was born at Decize, in Nivernais, 25th August 1767, educated at Soissons by the Oratorians, and afterwards went to Rheims to study law, but soon returned to his native village, where he devoted himself exclusively to literature. When the revolution broke out, S. J. was transported with enthusiasm, and became one of its most ardent apostles. Probably no man in France was a more genuine fanatical believer in the brilliant delusions of the period. Spotless, even austere, in his morals, reserved in manner but eloquent in speech, and rigorously earnest in his convictions, he rapidly rose into consideration among the inhabitants of his native commune, who elected him lieutenant-colonel of the National Guard, sent to Paris in 1790 to assist at the Fête of the Federation. In 1791, appeared his Esprit de la Revolution et de la Constitution de la France, in which the various causes of the revolution are sketched in a calm, keen, precise sort of way; and in the following year he was chosen deputy to the convention by the electors of Aisne. S. J. entered Paris on the 18th of September, fifteen days after the frightful massacres, which Lamartine in his Histoire des Girondins with melodramatic inaccuracy represents him as ordering in conjunction with Robespierre! He voted for the death of the king, and in an oration full of stern but exaggerated republican sentiment, gave his reasons." It was this speech that made him famous and influential. The Girondins tried to win him over, but in vain. In all the fierce debates of this period, S. J. took a leading part; but he also displayed a great capacity for administrative organisation, and on the 11th of February 1793, carried his project for the formation of a committee to superintend the war. After the fall of the Girondins in June (S. J. took no part in their overthrow, and never once spoke during the disastrous struggle between the two sections), the civil war broke out, and it is from this point that we date the exhibition of that intense and merciless republicanism which fitted him so well to be the associate of Robespierre. It is commonly thought that S. J.-perhaps because he was so young-was merely an instrument in the hands of Robespierre; but the known facts of his career lead to a very different conclusion, and some writers have not scrupled to make S. J. the real head of the extreme party who exercised government in France during the Reign of Terror. Almost all the energetic, or, as some would prefer to say, sanguinary, measures drawn up to repress the royalists and timid republicans at home, and to repel the forces of the allied monarchs on the frontier, were devised by him. SAINT LUCIE BARK. See CARIBBee Bark. On the 19th of February he was elected president of the convention. He drew up the terrible report in the dep. of Ille-et-Vilaine, at the mouth of SAINT MALO, a fortified seaport of France, which led to the arrestment and execution of the river Rance. It stands on a small island Hebert, Danton, and their adherents. S. J. had no less than three miles in circumference, called scruples in cutting off his opponents. The intensity of his convictions rendered him indifferent to deeds Le Rocher d'Aaron, which lies close off-shore, and of cruelty, however appalling. When the political reaction set in, and the party of moderation had got the upper hand in the convention, Robespierre and S. J. were seized and imprisoned (27th July 1794), and ordered to be guillotined next day. S. J. suffered with sullen calmness-not a word escaping his lips. See Ern. Hamel's Histoire de Saint Just (Par. 1859). SAINT LOUIS, a port of entry of Missouri, U.S., the chief city and commercial metropolis of the central Mississippi valley, stands on the right bank of the Mississippi, 20 miles below its confluence with the Missouri, and 170 miles above the mouth of the Ohio. It is regularly built upon the limestone bank of the river, on two terraces, rising 20 and 40 feet above high water, with wide and well-built streets running parallel to the river, crossed by others at right angles. The principal structures are a city hall, court house, custom house, arsenal, merchants' exchange, mercantile library, city hospital, marine hospital, university, cathedral, and several of the largest hotels in the world. There are 76 churches, of which 19 are Roman Catholic; 3 general hospitals, 10 orphan, and numerous other asylums, and 7 convents; the St Louis University, under charge of the Society of Jesus, with 18 professors; the Washington University, Academy of Sciences, German Institute, normal and high schools, 53 periodical publications, 11 daily papers, 9 German papers, an opera house, and 5 theatres. Five city railways have replaced the omnibusses, and the water supply is pumped from the Mississippi. Among the manufactories are flour and lumber mills, sugar refineries, lard and linseed-oil factories, provision packing; houses, manufactures of hemp, whisky, tobacco, and vast iron foundries and machine shops, which consume the ore supplied from Pilot Knob and the Iron Mountain. S. L. has a vast trade by steam-boats to the whole Mississippi valley, 68,000 tons being owned there, and extensive railway connections. It is also the chief centre of the American fur trade. There are 7 banks, and 24 insurance companies. The property valuation is 102,408,230 dollars. In 1764, S. L. was the dépôt of the Louisiana Indian trading company; in 1768, it was captured by a detachment of Spanish troops; in 1804, was ceded with the whole country west of the Mississippi to the United States; the first brick house was erected in 1813; in 1820, its population was 4590; in 1860, 151,780. SAINT LO, an old town of France, capital of the dep. of Manche, built on a rocky elevation is connected with it by a causeway, 650 feet |