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in the western world during this century, which, with respect to learning and philosophy at least, may be called the iron age of the Latins. Some learned men of modern times have, we confess, ventured to call this in question; but their doubts are certainly without foundation, and the matter of fact is too firmly established by unquestionable authorities to lose any part of its credit in consequence of the objections they allege against it." It is true there were public schools founded in most of the European provinces, some of which were erected in the monasteries, and the rest in those cities where the bishops resided. It is also true, that through this dismal night of ignorance there shone forth from time to time, and more especially toward the conclusion of this century, some geniuses of a superior order, who eyed with ardour the paths of science, and cast some rays of light upon the darkness of a barbarous age. But they were very few in number, and their extreme rarity is a sufficient proof of the infelicity of the times in which they appeared. In the seminaries of learning, such as they were, the seven liberal sciences were taught in the most unskilful and miserable manner, and that by the monks, who esteemed the arts and sciences no farther than as they were subservient to the interests of religion, or to speak more properly, to the views of superstition.

Mookish

v. They who were the most learned and judicious among the monastic orders, and who were desirous of employing usefully a part of their leisure, applied learning themselves to the composition of annals and histories which savoured of the ignorance and barbarism of the times. Such were Abo, Luitprand, Wittekind, Fulcuin, Johannes Ca

g The testimonies that prove the ignorance which prevailed in the tenth century, are collected by Du Boulay, in his Historia Acad. Paris, tom. i. p. 288; and also by Lud. Ant, Muratori, in his Antiquitat. Ital. medri ævi, tom. iii. p. 831, et tom. ii. p. 141, &c.

h The famous Leibnitz, in his Præfatio ad codicem juris Nat. et Gentium Diplomat. affirms, that there was more knowledge and learning in the tenth century, than in the succeeding ages, particularly in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. But this is washing the Ethiopian; it is also an extravagant assertion, and savours much of paradox. We shall be better directed in our notions of this matter by Mabilion in his Præfatio ad Actor. SS. Ordin. Bened. Quint. Sæc. p. 2, by the authors of the Histoire Literaire de la France, and by Le Beuf's Dissertat, de Statu literarum in Francia, a Carolo M. ad regem Robert. who all agree in acknowledging the gross ignorance of this century, though they would engage us to believe that its barbarism and darkness were not so hideous as they are commonly represented. There are, indeed, several considerations that render the reasons and testimonies even of these writers not a little defective; but we nevertheless agree with them so far, as to grant that all learning and knowledge were not absolutely extinguished in Europe at this time; and that in the records of this century, we shall find a few chosen spirits, who pierced through the cloud of ignorance that covered the multitude.

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puanus, Ratherius, Flodoard, Notker, Ethelbert, and others, who, though very different from each other in their respective degrees of merit, were all in general ignorant of the true nature and rules of historical composition. Several of the poets of this age gave evident marks of true genius, but they were strangers to the poetic art, which was not indeed necessary to satisfy a people utterly destitute of elegance and taste. The grammarians and rhetoricians of these unhappy times are scarcely worthy of mention; their method of instructing was full of absurdities, and their rules trivial, and for the most part injudicious. The same judgment may be formed in general of the geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music, which were more or less taught in the public schools, and of which a more particular account would be uninstructing and insipid.

The state of

VI. The philosophy of the Latins extended no farther than the single science of logic and dialectics, philosophy. which they looked upon as the sum and substance of all human wisdom. But this logic, which was so highly admired, was drawn without the least perspicuity or method from a book of Categories, which some have unjustly attributed to Augustin, and others to Porphyry. It is true indeed that the Timæus of Plato, the Topica of Cicero and Aristotle, and the book of the latter, De interpretatione, with other compositions of the Greeks and Latins, were in the hands of several of the doctors of this century, as we learn from credible accounts; but the same accounts inform us, that the true sense of these excellent authors was understood by almost none of those that perused them daily. It will appear no doubt surprising, that in such an ignorant age, such a subtile question as that concerning universal ideas should ever have been thought of; true however it is, that the famous controversy, Whether universal ideas belonged to the class of objects, or of mere names; a controversy which perplexed and bewildered the Latin doctors in succeeding times, and gave rise to the two opposite sects of the Nominalists and Realists; was started for the first time in this century. Accordingly we find in several passages of the writers of this period, the seeds and beginnings of this tedious and intricate dispute.*

iGunzo Epistol. ad Monachos Augienses in Martene Collect. Ampliss. Monumentor. Veter. tom. iii. p. 304.

k This appears evident from the following remarkable passage, which the reader will find in the 304th page of the work cited in the preceding note, and in which the Jearned Gunzo expresses himself in the following manner. "Aristoteles, genus, spe

The restoration of

VII. The drooping sciences found an eminent and illustrious patron, toward the conclusion of this century, in the learned Gerbert, a native of France, linn af letters who, upon his elevation to the pontificate, as- Silvester IL sumed the title of Silvester II. The genius of this famous pontiff was extensive and sublime, embracing all the different branches of literature; but its more peculiar bent was turned toward mathematical studies. Mechanics, geometry, astronomy, arithmetic, and every other kind of knowledge that had the least affinity to these important sciences, were cultivated by this restorer of learning with the most ardent zeal, and not without success, as his writings abundantly testify; nor did he stop here; but employed every method that was proper to encourage and animate others to the culture of the liberal arts and sciences. The effects of this noble zeal were visible in Germany, France, and Italy, both in this and in the following century; as by the writings, example, and encouraging exhortations of Gerbert, many were excited to the study of physic, mathematics, and philosophy, and in general to the pursuit of science in all its various branches. If indeed we compare this learned pontiff with the mathematicians of modern times, his merit, in that point of view, will almost totally disappear under such a disadvantageous comparison; for his geometry, though it be easy and perspicuous, is but elementary and superficial. Yet such as it was, it was marvellous in an age of barbarism and darkness, and surpassed the comprehension of those pigmy philosophers, whose eyes, under the auspicious direction of Gerbert, were but just beginning to open upon the light. Hence it was, that the geometrical figures, described by this mathematical pontiff, were regarded by the monks as magical operations, and the pontiff himself was treated as a magician and a disciple of Satan."

ciem, differentiam, proprium et accidens subsistere denegavit, quæ Platoni subsistentia persuasit. Aristoteli an Platoni magis credendum putatis? Magna est utriusque auctoritas, quatenus vix audeat quis alterum alteri dignitate præferre." Here we see plainly the seeds of discord sown, and the foundation laid for that knotty dispute which puzzled the metaphysical brains of the Latin doctors in after times. Gunzo was not adventurous enough to attempt a solution of this intricate question, which he leaves undecided; others were less modest, without being more successful.

I This geometry was published by Pezius, in his Thesaurus Anecdolorum, tom. iii. pars ii. p. 7.

m See Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. vi. p. 558. Du Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris, tom. i. p. 314, 319. Naude, Apologie pour les Grands Hommes faussement accuses de la Magie, chap. xix. 64.

Who derived

and erudition

from the Arabians.

vii. It was not however to the fecundity of his genius alone, that Gerbert was indebted for the knowhis knowledge ledge with which he now began to enlighten the European provinces; he had derived a part of his erudition, particularly in physic, mathematics, and philosophy, from the writings and instructions of the Arabians who were settled in Spain. Thither he had repaired in pursuit of knowledge, and had spent some time in the seminaries of learning at Cordova and Seville, with a view to hear the Arabian doctors ;" and it was perhaps by his example, that the Europeans were directed and engaged to have recourse to this source of instruction in after times. For it is undeniably certain, that from the time of Gerbert,such of the Europeans as were ambitious of making any considerable progress in physic, arithmetic, geometry, or philosophy, entertained the most eager and impatient desire of receiving instruction either from the academical lessons, or from the writings of the Arabian philosophers, who had founded schools in several parts of Spain and Italy. Hence it was, that the most celebrated productions of these doctors were translated into Latin, their tenets and systems adopted with zeal in the European schools, and that numbers went over to Spain and Italy to receive instruction from the mouths of these famous teachers, which were supposed to utter nothing but the deepest mysteries of wisdom and knowledge. However excessive this veneration for the Arabian doctors may have been, it must be owned, nevertheless, that all the knowledge, whether of physic, astronomy, philosophy, or mathematics, which flourished in Europe from the tenth century, was originally derived from them; and that the Spanish Saracens, in a more particular manner, may be looked upon as the fathers of European philosophy.

n See Du Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. 314.

CHAPTER II.

CONCERNING THE DOCTORS AND MINISTERS OF THE CHURCH, AND ITS FORM OF GOVERNMENT DURING THIS CENTURY.

The corrup

tion

I. To those who consider the primitive dignity, and the solemn nature of the ministerial character, the corruptions of the clergy must appear deplorable of the beyond all expression. These corruptions were clergy. mounted to the most enormous height in that dismal period of the church which we have now before us. Both in the eastern and western provinces, the clergy were, for the most part, composed of a most worthless set of men, shamefully illiterate and stupid, ignorant more especially in religious matters, equally enslaved to sensuality and superstition, and capable of the most abominable and flagitious deeds. This dismal degeneracy of the sacred order was, according to the most credible accounts, principally owing to the pretended chiefs and rulers of the universal church, who indulged themselves in the commission of the most odious crimes, and abandoned themselves to the lawless impulse of the most licentious passions without reluctance or remorse, who confounded, in short, all difference between just and unjust, to satisfy their impious ambition, and whose spiritual empire was such a diversified scene of iniquity and violence, as never was exhibited under any of those temporal tyrants, who have been the scourges of mankind. We may form some notion of the Grecian patriarchs from the single example of Theophylact, who, according to the testimonies of the most respectable writers, made the most impious traffic of ecclesiastical promotions, and expressed no sort of care about any thing but his dogs and horses." Degenerate however and licentious as these patriarchs might be, they were, generally speaking, less profligate and indecent than the Roman pontiffs.

Po This exemplary prelate, who sold every ecclesiastical benefice as soon as it became vacant, had in his stable above two thousand hunting horses, which he fed with pignuts, pistachios, dates, dried grapes, figs steeped in the most exquisite wines, to all which he added the richest perfumes. One holy Thursday, as he was celebrating high mass, his groom brought him the joyful news that one of his favourite mares had foaled; upon which he threw down the Liturgy, left the church, and ran in raptures to the stable, where having expressed his joy at that grand event, he returned to the altar to finish the divine service, which he had left interrupted during his absence. See Fleury, Hist. Ecclesiast. livre lv. p. 97, edit. Bruxelle,

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